The Cephalic Investigation -
Race Eugenics & Dysgenics
Skull Evolution & The History of the Lineage of Man
Website: MonsantoInvestigation.com
Edited by Michael James Ross
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The following Article will discuss the history and evolution with skulls of primates, animals
and humans. We will examine the medical and health problems found in skull deformations with humans and animals. This book will detail the evolution and de-evolution of different subraces and subspecies of primates and animals, including the health problems of certain brachycephalic species of animals and humans.
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Craniometry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniometry
Craniometry
is measurement of the cranium (the main part of the skull), usually the
human cranium. It is a subset of cephalometry, measurement of the head,
which in humans is a subset of anthropometry, measurement of the human
body. It is distinct from phrenology, the pseudoscience that tried to
link personality and character to head shape, and physiognomy, which
tried the same for facial features. However, these fields have all
claimed the ability to predict traits or intelligence.
They
were once intensively practised in anthropology, in particular in
physical anthropology in the 19th and the first part of the 20th
century. Theories attempting to scientifically justify the segregation
of society based on race became popular at this time, one of their
prominent figures being Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854–1936), who
divided humanity into various, hierarchized, different "races", spanning
from the "Aryan white race, dolichocephalic" (from the Ancient Greek
kephalĂȘ, head, and dolikhos, long and thin), to the "brachycephalic"
(short and broad-headed) race. On the other hand, craniometry was also
used as evidence against the existence of a "Nordic race" and also by
Franz Boas who used the cephalic index to show the influence of
environmental factors. Charles Darwin used craniometry and the study of
skeletons to demonstrate his theory of evolution first expressed in On
the Origin of Species (1859).
More direct measurements
involve examinations of brains from corpses, or more recently, imaging
techniques such as MRI, which can be used on living persons. Such
measurements are used in research on neuroscience and intelligence.
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(Brown people are a Subspecies)
(Asian Subspecies)
(Reconstruction of a H. floresiensis woman)
(Brown Subspecies)
{Black Subspecies (Bloodshot red eyes)}
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(Epicanthal folds)
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SOME RACIAL PECULIARITIES OF THE NEGRO BRAIN
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/49594/1000050402_ftp.pdf
Outlines
with brain axis, and these points located on the brain of an adult male
Negro (No. 1528) and of an adult male Caucasian (No. 1690) are seen in
figures la to 3b, there being semicircles drawn around each hemisphere
to facilitate comparison. These two brains are selected be- cause
they are nearly alike in many respects, but still show the racial
characteristics. They are taken from young adult males of about the same
age, the brains being of about the same size and weight. From these
out- lines it is observed that the Caucasian brain conforms more nearly
to a circle in its contour in the different planes than does that of
the Negro, which is squared at the ends, and flatter on the sides and
above, especially along the frontal lobes, thus exhibiting a distinct
box-shaped appearance. This shape of the Negro brain is manifested in
the mesial outline by the abrupt rise of the contour from the axis at
its posterior end, by the nearly straight line over the anterior
association center, by the nearly vertical line along the anterior
aspect of the frontal lobe, and by the horizontal line along the
inferior border of this lobe; it is manifested in the outline from above
by the square front and sides of the outline; and in the outline with
the brain rotated laterally 45", by the more abrupt rise posteriorly,
and the depression or apparent flattening over the an- terior
association center, along with the relative bulging of the posterior
association center. These differences are seen more plainly in Figure 4
(brains No. 1473 and 1538) which represents the 45" outlines of a
fairly typical adult male Caucasian brain, and of a fairly typical
adult male Negro brain of about the same weight and length. It is the
straight line seen over the anterior association center in this figure
on which especial emphasis is laid as a distinctive characteristic
of the Negro brain. Look- ing at the brain directly from above or from
the side one does not so readily notice any apparent flattening, but on
rotating the brain on its axis slightly to one side a glance will
often bring it out distinctly; or a careful examination, revolving the
brain from 10" to 60" from its normal position and looking at it from
above, wiIl almost invariably disclose this peculiarity. In some brains
it is well marked, in others only slightly so. It usually appears most
marked when either hemisphere is rotated through an angle of 30"
laterally from its normal position and viewed from above. Viewed from
the side the Negro brain appears to be pressed back, while the
Caucasian appears to be pushed forward, the result being that the
frontal lobe of the Negro brain appears considerably smaller than that
of the Caucasian. This difference is greater than is apparent in the
outlines, because the gyrus rectus in the Negro brain is low, while the
superior orbital plate passes well up into the frontal lobe outside of
this, materially diminishing the size of this lobe, the gyrus frontalis
superior also projecting upward in Negro brains more than in the
Caucasian. This is shown in Figures 5 to 7, brain No. 1681, from a
typical adult male Negro. The drawings are made from sawed sections of
the frozen head, showing the brain in situ, no distortion of the brain
being apparent. In this there may be observed the extremely small
frontal lobes; the pro- jection downward of the gyrus rectus; the deep
impression of the superior orbital plates; the straight lines along the
sides anteriorly, showing the lateral surfaces of the brain to be at an
angle of 45O from the vertical plane; the upward projection of the
gyrus frontalis superior; the bos- like appearance of each outline;
and the great bulging in the parietal region. The female Negro brain
may differ.somewhat from that of the male, but in general the same
peculiarities are noticeable in each. Fig- ures 8" to 10b exhibit a
characteristic adult female Negro brain and a small adult female
Caucasian brain for comparison, the two being selected because they are
so nearly alike, yet the racial differences are noticeable. The frontal
lobes of the female Negro brain are long and slender, while the
parietal region is full and bulging. The peculiaries noted in the other
outlines may be seen in these also. Examination of about fifty Negro
skulls, and hundreds of Negro heads has convinced me of a noticeable
characteristic: the appearance to be obtained by a view from behind at
an angle of about 30" above the hori- zontal looking directly forward.
The outline of the head or skull seen in this way is pointed
anteriorly and broad and flattened posteriorly. This may be seen in the
Negro brains under the same conditions. Here we see the small frontal
lobes, the large parietal region and the straight, flat sides over the
anterior association centers. That this is not only ap- parent, but
real, may be determined by measurements of the radii from the brain
center to the outlines of the plane passing through the brain axis at
an angle of 45" above the horizontal plane of each hemisphere. Such
measurements are found in Table 11, which gives the dimensions of this
plane in each non-distorted brain. Radii are projected from the brain
center for each 10" angle, and perpendiculars are dropped from the brain
axis for each centimeter on the axis from either end of the brain, and
these radii and perpendiculars are measured from their origin out to
the surface of the brain.
Topinard
corroborates these statements, aind concludes that the Negro has the
cerebral cranium less developed than the white, but its posterior
portion is more developed than the anterior. It falls within the
occipital races of Gratiolet 25 " and the Caucasian in his frontal
races. Barnard Davis l3 l4 demonstrated practically the same in
relation to the radii from the external auditory meatus to the three
regions of the skull, frontal, parietal and occipital. The white and the
black races arc evidently opposites in cardinal points. The one is
subjective, the other objective; the one frontal, the other occipital or
parietal; the one a great reasoner, the other emotional ; the one
domineering, but having great self-control, the other meek and
submissive, but violent and lacking self- control, especially when the
passions are aroused, or any sudden danger appears; the one a
greyhound, the other a bulldog. Spitzka " emphasizes the differences of
the two parts of the brain, an- terior and posterior, in comparing the
brains of Prof. Joseph Leidy, Ma]. J. W. Powell and Prof. Cope, by
contrasting the characteristics of these eminent men, and in so doing
corroborates Flechsig's. work and lends plausibility to the
generalizations given above. Wagner R8727s gives some interesting
figures in relation to the relative size of the various lobes in man
and the ourang-outang which may be appropriately presented here.
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Racial Variations in Different Skulls
2014
https://www.jpsr.pharmainfo.in/Documents/Volumes/Vol6Issue11/jpsr06111407.pdf
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Race, head size, and intelligence
https://philipperushton.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/iq-race-brain-size-rushton-kamin-south-african-j-of-psychology-9-1998.pdf
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Skulls from ancient North Americans hint at multiple migration waves
January 29, 2020
https://www.livescience.com/skulls-from-first-north-americans-diverse.html
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Mysterious ‘ghost’ populations had multiple trysts with human ancestors
Feb. 20, 2020
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/02/mysterious-ghost-populations-had-multiple-trysts-human-ancestors
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14 Different Types of Human Species | Explained
Apr 21, 2020
#13: Homo Sapiens Idaltu (Subspecies)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1sC1gxFvCqQ
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The Lost Ancient Humans of Antarctica
Feb 25, 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBF0hP2_nGw
{The reason why some Orientals have bigger heads and need less oxygen in Mountains is
because Orientals were part Denisovan. Orientals and Blacks were part animal and we are
calling
for strict population control on their numbers. We must regulate these
Orientals, Indians, Mexicans and black subspecies trying to overpopulate
and then breed with white humans. If anything we should eliminate most
of these subspecies in order for the white race to survive. Orientals,
East Indians, American Indians, Mexicans and brown South Americans were
all part Denisovan, this is why many brown skinned people are classified
as a subspecies of human}.
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How breeding with an ancient human species gave Tibetans their head for heights
July 4, 2014
https://theconversation.com/how-breeding-with-an-ancient-human-species-gave-tibetans-their-head-for-heights-28818
A new study of the DNA of Tibetans has looked at the gene underlying their ability to live in the low-oxygen conditions at high altitudes. It found that this gene has come from an unexpected source – the mysterious group of ancient humans called the Denisovans. This work, a collaboration between Chinese, Danish and American scientists, has been published in the journal Nature.
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Scientists Find The First-Ever Animal That Doesn't Need Oxygen to Survive
25 FEB 2020
https://www.sciencealert.com/this-is-the-first-known-animal-that-doesn-t-need-oxygen-to-survive
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Two pulses of Denisovans contributed to East Asian ancestry
March 16, 2018
Two distinct interbreeding events with Denisovans, a sister group to Neanderthals, contributed to the ancestry of modern East Asians, according to a genetic data analysis.
https://newsroom.uw.edu/news/two-pulses-denisovans-contributed-east-asian-ancestry
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Why do Asians have bigger brains than Europeans or Africans?
2017
Chinese scientists discover natural selection played a role
https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/2054126/why-do-asians-have-bigger-brains-europeans-or-africans
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How Your Nose Got Its Shape
Jul 31, 2016
Climate variation has sculpted our schnozzes since the earliest humans evolved, but environmental pressures can’t explain everything.
https://www.the-scientist.com/notebook/how-your-nose-got-its-shape-33101
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Denisovan Jawbone Discovered in a Cave in Tibet
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/01/science/denisovans-tibet-jawbone-dna.html
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Ancient gene flow from early modern humans into Eastern Neanderthals.
2016
Abstract
It has been shown that Neanderthals contributed genetically to modern humans outside Africa 47,000-65,000 years ago. Here we analyse the genomes of a Neanderthal and a Denisovan from the Altai Mountains in Siberia together with the sequences of chromosome 21 of two Neanderthals from Spain and Croatia. We find that a population that diverged early from other modern humans in Africa contributed genetically to the ancestors of Neanderthals from the Altai Mountains roughly 100,000 years ago. By contrast, we do not detect such a genetic contribution in the Denisovan or the two European Neanderthals. We conclude that in addition to later interbreeding events, the ancestors of Neanderthals from the Altai Mountains and early modern humans met and interbred, possibly in the Near East, many thousands of years earlier than previously thought.
http://europepmc.org/article/PMC/4933530
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Measures of body composition in blacks and whites: a comparative review
https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/71/6/1392/4729362
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Are Negros Closer to Apes Than to Humans?
Are these facts in the museum:
The
negro skull, in addition to having a smaller brain volume and thicker
cranial bones than that of the White, is prognathous ; i.e., the lower
face projects forward in the manner of an animal's muzzle. The negro jaw
is substantially longer, relative to its width, than the White jaw. A
feature of the negro lower jaw is its retention of a vestige of the
"simian shelf," a bony region immediately behind the incisors. The
simian shelf is a distinguishing characteristic of apes, and it is
absent in Whites.
They emit a peculiar offensive body odor similar to apes.
Just
as their black skin protected them from the intense African sun, they
are inherently lazy in order to prevent over exertion in that intense
sun.
The arms and legs of the negro are relatively
longer than the European. The humerus is shorter and the forearm longer
thereby approximating the ape form.
The eye often has a yellowish scierotic coat over it like that of a gorilla.
The negro has a shorter trunk; the cross-section of the chest is more circular than Whites. Similar to an ape.
The pelvis is narrower and longer as it is in an ape.
The negro has a larger and shorter neck akin to that of apes.
The ears are roundish, rather small, standing somewhat high and detached thus approaching the ape form.
The
jaw is larger and stronger and protrudes outward which, along with
lower retreating forehead, gives a facial angle of 68 to 70 degrees,
like an ape, as opposed to a facial angle of 80 to 82 degrees for
Europeans.
The three curvatures of the spine are less pronounced in the negro than in the white and thus more characteristic of an ape.
The two bones proper of the nose are occasionally united, as in apes.
Taxonomists
and geneticists believe that negros should be classified as different
species. In fact, Darwin declared in The Descent of Man that the negros
are so distinct that similar differences found in any other animal would
warrant their classification as a different species.
References:
Coon, Carleton S. The Origin of Races, 1962, Alfred A. Knopf
Howells, William. Mankind So Far, Doubleday, Garden City, NY
Weisman, Charles A. The Origins of Race and Civilization, 1990
https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/letters/2012/apes.htm
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These Are The Strongest Animals Built By Evolution
Updated on February 13, 2020
https://www.science101.com/strongest-animals-built-by-evolution/
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Effects of Vitamin C Deficiency on Body Shape and Skull Osteology in Geophagus brasiliensis: Implications for Interpretations of Morphological Plasticity
May 3, 1993
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1447135?seq=1
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Are humans Gnathostomates?
https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/70874/are-humans-gnathostomates
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TFClass: a classification of human transcription factors and their rodent orthologs
2015
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4383905/
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Diversity of human and mouse homeobox gene expression in development and adult tissues.
02 Nov 2016
http://europepmc.org/article/PMC/5094009
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How Chewing Gave Humans Flat Faces, Little Teeth and Wimpy Jaws
June 10, 2016
https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-chewing-gave-humans-flat-faces-little-teeth-and-wimpy-jaws
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Move over, DNA: ancient proteins are starting to reveal humanity’s history
11 July 2019
Proteins dating back more than one million years have been extracted from some fossils, and could help to answer some difficult questions about archaic humans.
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01986-x
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Homo floresiensis: Making Sense of the Small-Bodied Hominin Fossils from Flores
Are the bones of several tiny individuals from the island of Flores the newest addition to our family tree, or are they the remains of diseased humans only masquerading as an extinct species?
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/homo-floresiensis-making-sense-of-the-small-91387735/
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The new skull, MRD, belongs to the species Australopithecus anamensis.
August 29, 2019
https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/skull-discovered-in-ethiopia-yields-new-clues-on-how-humans-evolved/article29283628.ece
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Ancient skull discovery yields new clues on human evolution
29/08/2019
Ardi (for Ardipithecus ramidus, another species of hominid) was found in Ethiopia in 1994 and is believed to be around 4.5 million years old.
And Lucy, the famous Australopithecus afarensis, was discovered in Ethiopia in 1974 and is 3.2 million years old.
Australopithecus afarensis is one of the longest-lived and most studied early human species.
The new skull, MRD, belongs to the species Australopithecus anamensis.
Discovered in February 2016 at the site of Woranso-Mille, just 55 kilometres (34 miles) from where Lucy was found in the Afar region of northeastern Ethiopia, MRD offers "the first glimpse of the face of Lucy's ancestor," according to a statement announcing the finding.
Other lesser-known Australopithecus fossils date back at least 3.9 million years, but they featured only jaws and teeth. Without the skull, scientists' understanding of the evolution of these extinct hominids has remained limited.
https://www.france24.com/en/20190829-ancient-skull-discovery-yields-new-clues-human-evolution
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Richard Smith: How humans might divide into a superclass and a useless class
September 7, 2016
https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2016/09/07/richard-smith-how-humans-might-divide-into-a-superclass-and-a-useless-class/
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Superclass
https://www.thefreedictionary.com/superclass
Superclass: Definition - A taxonomic category of related organisms ranking below a phylum or its subdivisions and above a class.
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Superclasses of human TF DNA-binding domains.
Feb 2013
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Superclasses-of-human-TF-DNA-binding-domains-For-each-superclass-the-structure-of-one_fig1_234578305
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The brain is the final frontier of our privacy, and AI is about to breach it
November 19, 2019
https://qz.com/1750852/what-ai-chips-do-to-peoples-brains/
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Human taxonomy
Overview of speciation and hybridization within the genus Homo over the last two million years (vertical axis). The rapid "Out of Africa" expansion of H. sapiens is indicated at the top of the diagram, with admixture indicated with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and unspecified archaic African hominins.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_taxonomy
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Oldest ever human genetic evidence clarifies dispute over our ancestors
April 2020
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/04/200401111657.htm
Summary:
Genetic information from an 800,000-year-old human fossil has been retrieved for the first time. The results shed light on one of the branching points in the human family tree, reaching much further back in time than previously possible.
Genetic information from an 800,000-year-old human fossil has been retrieved for the first time. The results from the University of Copenhagen shed light on one of the branching points in the human family tree, reaching much further back in time than previously possible.
An important advancement in human evolution studies has been achieved after scientists retrieved the oldest human genetic data set from an 800,000-year-old tooth belonging to the hominin species Homo antecessor.
The findings by scientists from the University of Copenhagen (Denmark), in collaboration with colleagues from the CENIEH (National Research Center on Human Evolution) in Burgos, Spain, and other institutions, are published April 1st in Nature.
"Ancient protein analysis provides evidence for a close relationship between Homo antecessor, us (Homo sapiens), Neanderthals, and Denisovans. Our results support the idea that Homo antecessor was a sister group to the group containing Homo sapiens, Neanderthals, and Denisovans," says Frido Welker, Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, and first author on the paper.
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Homo antecessor: Common Ancestor of Humans and Neanderthals?
November 26, 2012
A hominid that lived in Europe more than a million years ago might have given rise to Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, some anthropologists say
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/homo-antecessor-common-ancestor-of-humans-and-neanderthals-143357767/
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'Hobbit' species did not evolve from ancestor of modern humans, research finds
April 2017
Bone study shows there is no evidence the 1.1-metre tall Homo floresiensis had any links with the much larger Homo erectus
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Mystery human hobbit ancestor may have been first out of Africa
21 April 2017
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/apr/02/zoom-technology-security-coronavirus-video-conferencing
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Homo Floresiensis: Facts About the 'Hobbit'
March 30, 2016
https://www.livescience.com/29100-homo-floresiensis-hobbit-facts.html
Homo floresiensis, dubbed "the Hobbit," was an ancient hominin that lived until at least 17,000 years ago.
Scientists discovered the first H. floresiensis fossil, along with stone tools and animal remains, in 2003 in the Liang Bua (LB) cave on the remote Indonesian island of Flores, according to a 2004 Nature paper. This first specimen — a 3.5-foot-tall (1.06 meter), 30-year-old adult female called LB1 — comprised a nearly complete skull and an associated skeleton, which includes several limb bones, hand and foot bones and a partial pelvis, according to the journal Nature.
"Its associated skeleton is one of the things that makes this specimen quite exciting," Mark Collard, a biological anthropologist at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia, told Live Science "We don't have very many associated skeletons of hominins outside of Neanderthals."
LB1's tiny build earned the species the nickname of "the Hobbit," after the tiny folk in J.R.R. Tolkien's book of the same name.
In addition to LB1, archaeologists later discovered jaw and skeletal remains of at least eight other diminutive individuals, according to a 2009 article in the Journal of Human Evolution. The small stature of these specimens suggests LB1 wasn't an anomaly.
Initial dating of the hobbit remains gave the species an age range of 74,000 to 17,000 years ago. However, dating of the associated tools and sediment deposits where the remains were discovered suggests H. floresiensis may have lived from as early as 95,000 years ago until about 12,000 years ago, according to a 2005 paper in Nature.
Just how H. floresiensis fits into the family tree of hominins — which includes those species that evolved after the human lineage (of the genus Homo) split from the chimpanzees — is unclear. Scientists have debated whether the hobbit specimens represent an extinct species in the human family tree, perhaps a squat offshoot of Homo erectus, a 1.8-million-year-old hominid and the first to have body proportions comparable to those of modern Homo sapiens. More recent arguments suggest the hobbit specimens may have evolved from a pre-H. erectus hominin.
In fact, scientists have sought to learn more about the evolution of this hobbit, looking for clues, for instance, for hobbit ancestors on other Indonesian islands. In one study, detailed in the Jan. 14, 2016, issue of the journal Nature, a team of researchers looked for such clues on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, situated between Flores and continental Asia. There, they found stone tools dating back at least 118,000 years, suggesting a hobbit ancestor lived on the island before modern humans showed up some 50,000 years ago, said study researcher errit van den Bergh, a paleontologist and zooarchaeologist at the University of Wollongong in Australia. The researchers aren't sure who this toolmaker was, though three possible candidates are: the hobbits, Homo erectus and the Denisovans, close relatives of Neanderthals.
What did the hobbit look like?
Based on LB1, experts estimate H. floresiensis weighed between 35 and 79 lbs. (16 and 36 kg), according to a 2004 Nature article describing the specimen.
The hobbit specimens show a unique set of ancestral features (primitive traits retained from an ancestor species) and derived features (evolved features not shared by ancestors). They had skulls that resembled early Homo species, including a flat, sloping forehead and a short, flat face; however, their teeth and jaws more closely resembled Australopithecus (Homo ancestors), according to Nature.
Additionally, in a 2007 study in the journal Science, researchers closely analyzed three wrist bones of LB1 and found they more closely resembled those of apes than modern humans. This finding implied that H. floresiensis was indeed a separate species from modern humans.
In 2012, Susan Hayes, a senior research fellow at University of Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia, and her colleagues fleshed out the female hobbit's face by uploading information from 3D imaging scans of its skull into a computer graphics program. Compared with portraits of the hobbit by paleo-artists, Hayes' facial depiction of H. floresiensis showed more modern human features instead of monkey-like traits. The hobbit, in this depiction, doesn't have feminine doe eyes, and she lacks much of a forehead. What's more, the newly modeled portrait has a wider, shorter face and a comparatively modern nasal structure than previous face models, according to the researchers' 2013 study in the Journal of Archaeological Science.
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Origins of Indonesian Hobbits finally revealed
April 21, 2017
Summary:
The most comprehensive study on the bones of Homo floresiensis, a species of tiny human discovered on the Indonesian island of Flores in 2003, has found that they most likely evolved from an ancestor in Africa and not from Homo erectus as has been widely believed.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170421084917.htm
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Small height evolved twice on 'Hobbit' island of Flores
14 August 2018
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-45049024
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Fast evolution explains the tiny stature of extinct ‘Hobbit’ from Flores Island
October 8, 2019
https://theconversation.com/fast-evolution-explains-the-tiny-stature-of-extinct-hobbit-from-flores-island-124747
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Bodies Keep Shrinking on This Island, and Scientists Aren't Sure Why
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/02/science/pygmies-flores-evolution.html
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Fast evolution explains the tiny stature of extinct ‘Hobbit’ from Flores Island
October 8, 2019
https://theconversation.com/fast-evolution-explains-the-tiny-stature-of-extinct-hobbit-from-flores-island-124747
It’s not every day that scientists discover a new human species.
But that’s just what happened back in 2004, when archaeologists uncovered some very well-preserved fossil remains in the Liang Bua cave on Flores Island, Indonesia. The diminutive size of this new human species, Homo floresiensis, earned it the nickname “Hobbit.”
Shockingly, researchers believed it had survived until the end of the last Ice Age, some 18,000 years ago. That was much later than Neanderthals lived, later than any human species other than our own.
Almost immediately, interpretations of this Hobbit skeleton met with fierce criticism from both anthropologists and evolutionary biologists. The poor Hobbit was accused of being an example not of a small new human species, but an abnormal Homo sapiens, bearing any of a variety of growth and hormonal conditions. The Hobbit, many scientists decided, had no place among the giants of the human evolutionary record.
An artist’s interpretation of how H. floresiensis looked in life. Tim Evanson/Flickr, CC BY-SA
Yet she – yes, the Hobbit was later found to be a female – had her revenge. This tiny, small-brained creature stood just a bit more than three feet tall and had a brain as big as a chimp. But her place in the human ancestral line was cemented when researchers uncovered another tiny individual in Flores. This second, much older discovery debunked the idea that the Hobbit was a unique, abnormal Homo sapiens.
After 15 years of intense research, anthropologists now confidently date the Liang Bua individual to have lived between 60,000 and 90,000 years ago. Her much older cousins in Flores lived 700,000 years ago. This long reign testifies to the success of this tiny human species, no matter how small-statured and small-brained they were.
And this year anthropologists found a new dwarfed human species, christened Homo luzonensis, in the Philippines.
So why did tiny humans wind up living on these islands? For us biogeographers and evolutionary biologists, the answer was right in front of us: the island rule.
Island life and body size
Zoologist J. Bristol Foster originally proposed the island rule in 1964.
He’d noted that when a large-bodied species settles onto an island, it will tend to evolve to shrink in size – all the way to the point of leaving dwarf descendants. At the same time, the opposite will happen. Small-bodied species will evolve to be larger, producing gigantic daughter species.
There are spectacular cases of this island rule in action across the world. Think of pygmy elephants and mammoths from Mediterranean and Baja California islands, hippos that would barely outweigh a donkey in Cyprus, deer as tall as a pet dog in Crete, rats as big as a cow in the Caribbean and insects as long as a human hand in New Zealand.
Biologists have proposed various mechanisms that could be responsible for this evolutionary trend. A good motive might be the absence of natural predators on islands. A number of species, most notably elephants and hippos, fend predators off by virtue of their size, an expensive strategy when no killer is lurking in the dark. Also, on islands the scarce resource supply might favor smaller body size because smaller individuals can live with less.
Or it could be that smaller individuals with no predators just produce more offspring, which implies females start delivering earlier and at smaller size, investing less in growth and more in reproduction. This possibility is a likely explanation for how contemporary human pygmies evolved.
All of these options will eventually lead to changes in the genetic architecture that underlies body-size variation.
So, we asked, could the island rule be an explanation for small size of Homo floresiensis and Homo luzonensis? We thought probably yes.
Excavations in 2009 at Liang Bua cave, where Homo floresiensis was found. AP Photo/Achmad Ibrahim
Modeling generations on the island
The Hobbit’s most likely ancestor is Homo erectus, a species more than twice its size in terms of its brain and overall bulk. Based on the geological history of Flores and the oldest known fossils of Homo floresiensis, it seems the evolution of the new species must have occurred in less than about 300,000 years.
As evolutionary biologists, we are acquainted with the idea that Darwinian evolution is a slow and gradual process that takes place over very long timescales. Could such drastic change in body size happen this fast?
So our interdisciplinary research team developed a computer model to try to answer this basic question. It’s like a computer game that simulates body size evolution under biologically and ecologically realistic scenarios.
In our model, individuals colonize the island, grow to their adult body size according to how much food is available, give birth to a number of young and die. The basic rule of the game is that individuals that are closer to the “optimum” body size for the island in that moment will leave more descendants. Offspring inherit genes for large or small body size.
Generation after generation, new mutations may appear in the population and shift body size toward either higher or lower values. Occasionally, new individuals might even invade the island and mix with the residents. Another basic rule is that the initial small population cannot grow above the number the island’s resources might sustain.
Our colleagues, Earth systems scientists Neil Edwards and Phil Holden, used paleoclimatic data to tweak our model. Hotter and wetter times can support more people on the island, and would influence optimum body size at any given moment.
We started our simulations assuming that large-bodied Homo erectus arrived at the island and then evolved into a smaller species there. Since we just don’t know the exact numbers our model should crank through, we based them on estimates obtained from current human populations.
Because of this uncertainty, we ran our model thousands of times, each time using a random combination of all the parameters. Ultimately we were able to build a statistical distribution of how long it took for Homo erectus to become as small as Homo floresiensis.
A new species, in the blink of an evolutionary eye
After running 10,000 simulations, we were surprised to discover that in less than 350 generations, the process was complete. Thinking in terms of years, assuming a young female delivers a first baby at the average age of 15, that translates to about 10,000 years.
That may seem long for you and me. But from an evolutionary perspective, that’s the blink of an eye – a little more than a thousandth of Homo evolutionary history.
Of course we do not expect that all the features that make Homo floresiensis as unique as it is evolved that fast and at the same time. Yet, our simulation still shows, 300,000 years is far more than enough time for a new human species to arise.
Our work supports the idea that fast evolution is quite plausible under a realistic set of ecological parameters, and that natural selection may be a powerful force influencing body size on islands. And if Homo floresiensis is indeed a product of the island rule, she shows – yet again – that we humans tend to obey the same overall rules driving evolution in many other mammals.
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A New Genetic Study Suggests Modern Flores Island Pygmies and Ancient Hobbits Are Unrelated
August 2, 2018
The island dwarfism effect seems to have occurred independently in each population, thousands of years apart
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/new-genetic-study-suggests-modern-flores-island-pygmies-and-ancient-hobbits-are-unrelated-180969858/
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Modern Flores Island pygmies show no genetic link to extinct ‘hobbits’
Aug. 2, 2018
Two pygmy populations on the same tropical island. One went extinct tens of thousands of years ago; the other still lives there. Are they related?
https://www.princeton.edu/news/2018/08/02/modern-flores-island-pygmies-show-no-genetic-link-extinct-hobbits
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{It becomes confusing when you have scientists saying that Hobbits were related to Homo erectus, and now many scientists are stating that Hobbits are not related to Homo erectus.
The same goes for Hobbits being related to Homo floresiensis or not
I am still convinced the reason why Orientals and Mexicans look the way they do is because they must be from one of these species such as Denisovans, Homo erectus or even a distant cousin such as Homo floresiensis.
Some scientists will say that it was Homo erectus that spawned certain types of humans, and that
Hobbits were a subspecies that never fully made it into the human gene pool. It is debated if Hobbits were a subspecies, or Hobbits were their own distinct species. Hobbits were possibly on their own island, and why they were smaller than other primates.
Many question if Hobbits were a degenerative subspecies of Homo erectus.
If we had to guess what primates made up Orientals or brown people, I think that it would be Denisovans (this has been verified), Homo erectus or Homo floresiensis, including Homo heidelbergensis or Homo habilis. We know that brown skinned people have more Denisovan DNA, and why many brown people are classified as an inferior subspecies.
Blacks might be Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis}.
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Africans have more archaic, ape like gene variants says controversial geneticist Dr. Shi Huang
2020
Google Scholar Dr. Huang is a former Professor of Epigenetics and Evolution, Central South University, (Burnham Institute, UCSD). Univ. of California San Diego of course, is well known for producing the popular series of human evolution lectures on YouTube. Dr. Huang is now affiliated with the Central South University – CSU · Center for Medical Genetics in China.
During his early career at the Pew Institute, Dr. Huang [was] “studying the relationship between genetic diversity and epigenetic complexity and its role in common diseases and evolution… We proposed a novel hypothesis of genetic diversity and evolution, the Maximum Genetic Diversity (MGD) hypothesis… Genetic diversity of a species has an upper limit as set up by the epigenetic complexity levels…”
On Nov. 26, Shi Huang Tweeted:
“That Africans carry more ancestral alleles (=archaic or apes) has been well demonstrated by the rooting of phylogenetic trees in Africa for both autosomes and uniparental DNAs by using the outgroup rooting method. Biological significance of this? Eerie silence…”
In 2011 a research team tackled the precise question of African admixture with archaic hominids.
Michael Hammer (bio) is the Director of the University of Arizona Genetics Core (UAGC) and co-director of the UACC Genomics Shared Resource. He has joint appointments in Departments of Neurology and Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.
Also Dr. Jeff Wall, Professor of Epidemiology and Biostatistics (bio) Recent studies have focused on the contribution of archaic hominid ancestry in human populations.
Admixture from Homo naledi in present Africans?
Their findings (PNAS.org, Genetic Evidence for Archaic Admixture in Africans):
Here we use DNA sequence data gathered from 61 noncoding autosomal regions in a sample of three sub-Saharan African populations (Mandenka, Biaka, and San) to test models of African archaic admixture. We use two complementary approximate-likelihood approaches and a model of human evolution that involves recent population structure, with and without gene flow from an archaic population. Extensive simulation results reject the null model of no admixture and allow us to infer that contemporary African populations contain a small proportion of genetic material (≈2%) that introgressed ≈35 kya from an archaic population that split from the ancestors of anatomically modern humans ≈700 kya. [Emphasis added]
Speculation from various top paleontologists such as John Hawks, Lee Berger, Chris Stringer and others has centered on likely suspects: Homo Heidelbergensis, Ergaster or even late Australopithecene, Homo naledi.
Hawks (lecture, 2017):
“We do know that African populations derive some small fraction of their DNA, possibly as much as 5%… from archaic lineages that we haven’t discovered… What we don’t know is the identity of that lineage… It could be Naledi?”
Svante PÀÀbo on a possible archaic mix (lecture, 2018):
“There’s some indications of that in the genomes of present day Africans.”
And most recently, 2019, Arun Durvasula and Sriram Sankararaman from the University of California in Los Angeles confirmed up to 19% archaic Hominid DNA in modern Africans. They have described the ancestor as a “ghost species” or quite possibly Homo naledi a “small-brained hominin” on the “African plains 250,000 years ago.” (IFL Science)
But as Professor Shi Huang implies, as the answer to the puzzle gets closer to being solved, an “eerie silence” has overtaken the paleontology, genetics and anthropology communities.
https://subspecieist.com/archaic-hominins/africans-ape-like-genetics/
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Blacks Aren’t Human
14 March, 2015
https://nationalvanguard.org/2015/03/blacks-arent-human/
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Negroid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negroid
Physical features
In modern craniofacial anthropometry, Negroid describes features that typify skulls of black people. These include a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; a square or rectangular eye orbit shape; a large interorbital distance; a more undulating supraorbital ridge; and large teeth.
According to George W. Gill and other modern forensic anthropologists, physical traits of Negroid crania are generally distinct from those of the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races. They assert that they can identify a Negroid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%. However, Alan H. Goodman cautions that this precision estimate is often based on methodologies using subsets of samples. He also argues that scientists have a professional and ethical duty to avoid such biological analyses since they could potentially have sociopolitical effects. Although widely used in forensic anthropology, some have also challenged the accuracy of craniofacial anthropometry vis-a-vis different human populations that have developed in close proximity to one another and those of mixed ethnic heritage.[30] Since the distinguishing racial traits are not set until puberty, they are also difficult to ascertain in preadolescent skulls.
Variation in craniofacial form between humans has been found to be largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Modern cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide SNPs has identified specific genes, which control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and PAX3 were found to determine nasal morphology, whereas EDAR impacts chin protrusion.
Subraces
In the first half of the 20th century, the traditional subraces of the Negroid race were regarded as being the True Negro, the Forest Negro, the Bantu Negro, the Nilote, the Negrillo (also known as the African Pygmy), the Khoisan (often historically referred to as Hottentot and Bushman), the Negrito (also known as the Asiatic Pygmy), and the Oceanic Negroids (consisting of the Papuan and Melanesian).[
By the 1960s, some scholars regarded the Khoisan as a separate race known as the Capoid race, while others continued to regard them as a Negroid subrace. The term "Congoid" was frequently used interchangeably with "Negroid", with the main difference being that Congoid excluded the Capoid taxon.
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Lisar neolithic Woman
https://www.kenniskennis.com/site/sculptures/Lisar%20Neolithic%20Woman/
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Homo Erectus Naturalis
https://www.kenniskennis.com/site/sculptures/Homo%20Erectus%20Naturalis/
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Neanderthal Child
https://www.kenniskennis.com/site/sculptures/Neanderthal%20Child/
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Pestera cu Oase
https://www.kenniskennis.com/site/sculptures/Pestera%20cu%20Oase/
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Neanderthal Gibraltar
https://www.kenniskennis.com/site/sculptures/Neanderthal%20Gibraltar/
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Angolan Physician: “Sexual Relationships Between Humans and Chimpanzees Are Fairly Common in the Region”
14 March, 2020
https://nationalvanguard.org/2020/03/angolan-physician-sexual-relationships-between-humans-and-chimpanzees-are-fairly-common-in-the-region/
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Morrissey reignites racism row by calling Chinese a 'subspecies'
2010
Remark came in context of an attack on China's animal welfare record, with singer having been criticised on a number of previous occasions for negative race comments
https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/sep/03/morrissey-china-subspecies-racism
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A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines
10 April 2019
Abstract
A hominin third metatarsal discovered in 2007 in Callao Cave (Northern Luzon, the Philippines) and dated to 67 thousand years ago provided the earliest direct evidence of a human presence in the Philippines. Analysis of this foot bone suggested that it belonged to the genus Homo, but to which species was unclear. Here we report the discovery of twelve additional hominin elements that represent at least three individuals that were found in the same stratigraphic layer of Callao Cave as the previously discovered metatarsal. These specimens display a combination of primitive and derived morphological features that is different from the combination of features found in other species in the genus Homo (including Homo floresiensis and Homo sapiens) and warrants their attribution to a new species, which we name Homo luzonensis. The presence of another and previously unknown hominin species east of the Wallace Line during the Late Pleistocene epoch underscores the importance of island Southeast Asia in the evolution of the genus Homo.
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1067-9
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Previously unknown human species found in Asia raises questions about early hominin dispersals from Africa
10 April 2019
Excavations in southeast Asia have unearthed a previously unreported hominin species named Homo luzonensis. The discovery has implications for ideas about early hominin evolution and dispersal from Africa.
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01019-7
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Pacific Islanders Appear to Be Carrying The DNA of an Unknown Human Species
2016
https://www.sciencealert.com/pacific-islanders-appear-to-be-carrying-the-dna-of-an-unknown-human-species
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Are races human subspecies?
https://www.quora.com/Are-races-human-subspecies
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Are different races subspecies?
https://askabiologist.asu.edu/questions/human-races
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The human gut chemical landscape predicts microbe-mediated biotransformation of foods and drugs
Jun 11, 2019
https://elifesciences.org/articles/42866/figures
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The ‘Stoned Ape’ Theory Might Explain Our Extraordinary Evolution
A scientist resurfaces a psychedelic retelling of human evolution.
https://getpocket.com/explore/item/the-stoned-ape-theory-might-explain-our-extraordinary-evolution?utm_source=pocket-newtab
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A PhD student proved one of Darwin's theories of evolution 140 years after his death
March 19, 2020
https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/19/world/darwin-theory-proved-scn-trnd/index.html
Darwin's subspecies theory
To understand the significance of this development, it's best to start with a refresher on the following taxonomy (or naming conventions): genus, species and subspecies.
A genus is a group of animals with similar traits. This can include multiple species. For example, most bears belong to the genus Ursus.
A species is a group of similar animals that can interbreed and exchange genes to reproduce. The brown bear is a species under the Ursus umbrella.
A subspecies is a group within a species that looks phenotypically different from the rest of the species and has its own breeding range that doesn't overlap with the rest of the species. A grizzly bear is a subspecies of brown bear.
Darwin predicted that species in a larger genus should also include more subspecies. But he never elaborated on why.
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A Scientist Just Proved One of Darwin's Evolution Theories, 161 Years Later
The discovery could help protect endangered species.
Mar 23, 2020
https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/a31898738/scientist-proves-darwin-evolution-theory/
An anthropology doctoral student at the University of Cambridge has analyzed centuries of naturalist data to prove a longstanding theory from Charles Darwin’s work. The crux of the work is in the relationship between how species evolve into subspecies and whether that presages new species.
Laura van Holstein said in a statement that the way subspecies emerge depends on whether the species is by land, by air, or by sea. “Subspecies form, diversify and increase in number in a different way in non-terrestrial and terrestrial habitats, and this in turn affects how subspecies may eventually become species,” she said.
We see this kind of branching represented in concurrent species, like the isolated and specialized groups of finches Darwin himself studied in the Galapagos Islands. One of the most familiar examples might be the wildcat, which refers to one of two species that are very closely related—domestic cat ancestor the African wildcat, and the European wildcat. In turn, each species has subspecies. These are all totally separate from specific kinds of wild cats like Pallas cats or fishing cats.
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HUMAN DIVERSITY - GO DEEPER
There is not one gene, trait, or characteristic that distinguishes all members of one race from all members of another. We can map any number of traits and none would match our idea of race. This is because modern humans haven't been around long enough to evolve into different subspecies and we've always moved, mated, and mixed our genes. Beneath the skin, we are one of the most genetically similar of all species.
Lots of animals are divided into subspecies. Why doesn't it make sense to group humans the same way?
https://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-background-01-11.htm
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Mungo Man
http://www.convictcreations.com/aborigines/prehistory.htm
Turning evolution upside down
In the study of human evolution, Australia has not traditionally believed to have much to offer; however, the skeletal record has thrown up a few spanners in the works that may one day transform beliefs about where humans came from.
One of these spanners is Mungo Man, who was discovered in 1974 in the dry lake bed of Lake Mungo in west NSW. Mungo Man was a hominin who was estimated to have died 62,000 years ago and was ritually buried with his hands covering his penis. Anatomically, Mungo Man's bones were distinct from other human skeletons being unearthed in Australia. Unlike the younger skeletons that had big-brows and thick-skulls, Mungo Man's skeleton was finer, and more like modern humans.
The ANU's John Curtin School of Medical Research found that Mungo Man's skeleton's contained a small section of mitochondrial DNA. After analysing the DNA, the school found that Mungo Man's DNA bore no similarity to the other ancient skeletons, modern Aborigines and modern Europeans. Furthermore, his mitochondrial DNA had become extinct. The results called into question the 'Out of Africa' theory of human evolution. If Mungo Man was descended from a person who had left Africa in the past 200,000 years, then his mitochondrial DNA should have looked like all of the other samples.
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A 146,000-Year-Old Fossil Dubbed ‘Dragon Man’ Might Be One of Our Closest Relatives
June 25, 2021
A mysterious Middle Pleistocene skull from a Chinese well has inspired debate among paleoanthropologists
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/146000-year-old-fossil-dubbed-dragon-man-might-be-one-our-closest-relatives-180978062/
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Israeli Archaeologists Think New Chinese Hominin 'Dragon Man' May Be Homo Nesher
Phylogenetic analysis led a team to posit that a skull found in 1933 is an unknown species of hominin. Israeli researchers think it looks like an early Neanderthal
June 27, 2021
https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/israel-archaeologists-chinese-hominin-dragon-man-may-be-homo-nesher-1.9937326
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An Indigenous people in the Philippines have the most Denisovan DNA
August 12, 2021
Indigenous Ayta Magbukon people get 5 percent of their DNA from the mysterious ancient hominids
Denisovans are an elusive bunch, known mainly from ancient DNA samples and traces of that DNA that the ancient hominids shared when they interbred with Homo sapiens. They left their biggest genetic imprint on people who now live in Southeast Asian islands, nearby Papua New Guinea and Australia. Genetic evidence now shows that a Philippine Negrito ethnic group has inherited the most Denisovan ancestry of all. Indigenous people known as the Ayta Magbukon get around 5 percent of their DNA from Denisovans, a new study finds.
This finding fits an evolutionary scenario in which two or more Stone Age Denisovan populations independently reached various Southeast Asian islands, including the Philippines and a landmass that consisted of what’s now Papua New Guinea, Australia and Tasmania. Exact arrival dates are unknown, but nearly 200,000-year-old stone tools found on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi may have been made by Denisovans (SN: 1/13/16). H. sapiens groups that started arriving around 50,000 years ago or more then interbred with resident Denisovans.
Evolutionary geneticists Maximilian Larena and Mattias Jakobsson, both at Uppsala University in Sweden, and their team describe the new evidence August 12 in Current Biology.
Even as the complexities of ancient interbreeding in Southeast Asia become clearer, Denisovans remain a mysterious crowd. “It’s unclear how the different Denisovan groups on the mainland and on Southeast Asian islands were related [to each other] and how genetically diverse they were,” Jakobsson says.
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/indigenous-people-philippines-denisovan-dna-genetics
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Ancient Denisovan DNA excavated in modern Pacific Islanders
Substantial genomic remnants of the extinct Denisovans recovered in Oceania populations
March 17, 2016
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/03/160317150805.htm
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High Covid-19 rates for Pacific islanders in the US
April 2020
https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/415195/high-covid-19-rates-for-pacific-islanders-in-the-us
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Pacific Islander Death Rate From Covid Still The Worst In LA County (Though Not As High As Originally Thought)
Jul 16, 2020
https://laist.com/news/pacific-islander-native-hawaiian-california-los-angeles-covid-19-coronavirus
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Hawaii 62 Percent Fully Vaccinated & Huge Covid-19 Surge And Hospitalizations Spike
30 Aug 2021
https://ugetube.com/watch/hawaii-62-percent-fully-vaccinated-huge-covid-19-surge-and-hospitalizations-spike-mp4_N3PwsVbSGPYUI3R.html
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Pacific Islanders In Oregon Have The Highest Rate of COVID-19
April 23, 2020
https://www.civilbeat.org/beat/pacific-islanders-in-oregon-have-the-highest-rate-of-covid-19/
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Colorado’s Pacific Islanders Display Higher COVID-19 Death Rates
April 14, 2020
https://asamnews.com/2020/04/14/colorados-native-hawaiian-pacific-islanders-display-higher-covid-19-coronavirus-death-rates/
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Pacific Islanders Have The Highest COVID-19 Death Rate In Hawaii
August 24, 2020
Filipinos in Hawaii have the next-highest death rate, composing 24% of deaths but only 16% of the population.
https://www.civilbeat.org/2020/08/pacific-islanders-have-the-highest-covid-19-death-rate-in-hawaii/
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Track us better: Overlooked Pacific Islanders hit hard by coronavirus
May 5, 2020
https://www.abc10.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/overlooked-pacific-islanders-hit-hard-by-coronavirus/103-b21e19e1-e96a-447b-8a8c-0d3ac6a7e04b
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Genetic Evidence Suggests a Denisovan Presence in the Pacific Islands
24 April, 2021
A new genetic study has provided important data to evolutionary
scientists seeking to trace the migratory movements and cultural
interactions of the people who settled the South Pacific islands of
Oceania. Most intriguing is a discovery that seems to link people living
in the highlands of Papua New Guinea (PNG) with the famed Denisovans,
the long-extinct cousins of the Neanderthals who were believed to have
resided exclusively in East Asia. While many Pacific Islands show traces
of Denisovan DNA from encounters that occurred before their ancestors
migrated to their current homes, the latest evidence suggests more recent interbreeding, dating to the post-island settlement era.
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/pacific-islands-0015238
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A Pygmy Negrito Tribe Is Found to be 5% Archaic Denisovan
August 17, 2021
A
Pygmy Negrito tribe in the Philippines is found to have 5% of their DNA
descended from the archaic quasi-extinct Denisovan mystery
quasi-species.
Denisovans are somewhat as if they are to the East
Eurasian/Pacific what the much more famous Neanderthals are to West
Eurasia: a hominid group distinct enough from anatomically modern humans
to be considered a distinct species, but close enough to have mated
with modern humans and, apparently, contributed some useful genes to
many (but not all) modern genomes. (Geneticists also now theorize that
modern sub-Saharans have similar single digit percentages of genetic
ancestry from one or more still-undiscovered archaic “ghost
populations.”
Denisovans were unknown until a decade ago when a few bones were found in Siberia and their DNA extracted.
https://www.unz.com/isteve/a-pygmy-negrito-tribe-is-found-to-be-5-archaic-denisovan/
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Pacific Islanders Appear to Be Carrying The DNA of an Unknown Human Species
25 OCTOBER 2016
https://www.sciencealert.com/pacific-islanders-appear-to-be-carrying-the-dna-of-an-unknown-human-species
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Some Pacific Islanders Have DNA Not Linked To Any Known Human Ancestor
October 31, 2016
Researchers have now uncovered the DNA of a previously unknown group of hominids.
https://allthatsinteresting.com/pacific-islanders-ancestor
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Some West Africans Have DNA Not Linked To Any Known Human Ancestor
April 3, 2018
Using a new method, researchers found mysterious "ghost" DNA in West African Yoruba population.
https://allthatsinteresting.com/west-africans-unknown-dna
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Black People Are Four Times More Likely To Die From Coronavirus, U.K. Statistics Show
May 7, 2020
https://www.forbes.com/sites/isabeltogoh/2020/05/07/black-people-are-four-times-more-likely-to-die-from-coronavirus-uk-statistics-show/#78777b124fd4
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Scientists Find a Mysterious 'Ghost Lineage' In the DNA of West Africans
February 14, 2020
Researchers find evidence that a group of still-unknown humans interbred with our ancestors.
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/genetic-traces-of-mysterious-human-lineage-detected-in-people-living-in
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The 'Ghosts' of 2 Unknown Extinct Human Species Have Been Found in Modern DNA
17 JULY 2019
https://www.sciencealert.com/two-unknown-species-of-ancient-extinct-hominids-have-been-identified-in-modern-dna
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Ghost population
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_population
A ghost population is a population that has been inferred through using statistical techniques.
Population studies
In 2004, it was proposed that Maximum likelihood or Bayesian approaches that estimate the migration rates and population sizes using coalescent theory can use datasets which contain a population that has no data. This is referred to as a "ghost population". The manipulation allows exploration in the effects of missing populations on the estimation of population sizes and migration rates between two specific populations. The biases of the inferred population parameters depend on the magnitude of the migration rate from the unknown populations. The technique for deriving ghost populations attracted criticism because ghost populations were the result of statistical models, along with their limitations.
Population genetics
Further information: Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans
In 2012, DNA analysis and statistical techniques were used to infer that a now-extinct human population in northern Eurasia had interbred with both the ancestors of Europeans and a Siberian group that later migrated to the Americas. The group was referred to as a ghost population because they were identified by the echoes that they leave in genomes — not by bones or ancient DNA.[3] In 2013, another study found the remains of a member of this ghost group, fulfilling the earlier prediction that they had existed.
According to a study published in 2020, there are indications that 2% to 19% (or about ≃6.6 and ≃7.0%) of the DNA of four West African populations may have come from an unknown archaic hominin which split from the ancestor of humans and Neanderthals between 360 kya to 1.02 mya. However, the study also suggests that at least part of this archaic admixture is also present in Eurasians/non-Africans, and that the admixture event or events range from 0 to 124 ka B.P, which includes the period before the Out-of-Africa migration and prior to the African/Eurasian split (thus affecting in part the common ancestors of both Africans and Eurasians/non-Africans).[6][7][8] Another recent study, which discovered substantial amounts of previously undescribed human genetic variation, also found ancestral genetic variation in Africans that predates modern humans and was lost in most non-Africans.
In 2015, a study of the lineage and early migration of the domestic pig found that the best model that fitted the data included gene flow from a ghost population during the Pleistocene that is now extinct.
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The Old, Weird Africa: Ancient Pygmy DNA Uncovered by David Reich
January 22, 2020
https://www.amren.com/news/2020/01/the-old-weird-africa-ancient-pygmy-dna-uncovered-by-david-reich/
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New look at archaic DNA rewrites human evolution story
August 7, 2017
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170807155158.htm
A new method for analyzing DNA sequence data has been developed to reconstruct early history of archaic human populations, revealing an evolutionary story that contradicts conventional wisdom about modern humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans. They found that Neanderthal-Denisovan lineage nearly went extinct after separating from modern humans. Just 300 generations later, Neanderthals and Denisovans diverged around 744,000 years ago. The global Neanderthal population grew to tens of thousands of individuals living in fragmented, isolated populations.
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Grimaldi man
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimaldi_man
Grimaldi man is the name formerly given to two human skeletons of the Upper Paleolithic discovered in Italy in 1901. The remains are now recognized as representing two individuals, and are dated to ca. 26,000 to 22,000 years ago and classified as part of the wider European early modern humans population of the late Aurignacian to early Gravettian.
Because of their early discovery, there is a long history of interpretation of the fossils. Notably, the remains were originally classified as Negroid by Boule and Vallois (1921). This identification has been obsolete since at least the 1960s, but it was controversially revived in the 1980s as part of the Afrocentrism propagated by Cheikh Anta Diop.
Physical characteristics
The Grimaldi skeletons were very different from the finds that had been unearthed in Europe until then. Unlike the robust Neanderthals, the Grimaldi skeletons were slender and gracile, even more so than the Cro-Magnon finds from the same cave system. The Grimaldi people were small. While an adult Cro-Magnon generally stood over 170 cm tall (large males could reach 190 cm), neither of the two skeletons stood over 160 cm. The boy was smallest at a mere 155 cm.
The two skulls had rather tall braincases, unlike the long, low skulls found in Neanderthals and to a lesser extent in Cro-Magnons. The faces had wide nasal openings and lacked the rectangular orbitae and broad complexion so characteristic of Cro-Magnons. These traits, combined with what de Villeneuve interpreted as prognathism led the discoverers to the conclusion that the Grimaldi man had been of a "negroid" type. Some traits did not fit the picture though. The nasal bone had a high nasal bridge, like that of Cro-Magnons and modern Europeans and was very unlike those of more tropical groups. The two rises of the frontal bone in the forehead were separate rather than forming a single median rise, another European trait. The cranial capacity was also quite large for their size.
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Boskop Man
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boskop_Man
The Boskop Man is an anatomically modern human fossil of the Middle Stone Age (Late Pleistocene) discovered in 1913 in South Africa. The fossil was at first described as Homo capensis and considered a separate human species by Broom (1918), but by the 1970s this "Boskopoid" type was widely recognized as representative of the modern Khoisan populations.
Cranial capacity
The Boskop Man fossils are notable for their unusually large cranial capacities, with reported cranial-capacity ranges between 1,700 and 2,000 cm3.
This was addressed in the book Big Brain: The Origins and Future of Human Intelligence (2008) by neurologists Gary Lynch and Richard Granger, who claimed the large brain size in Boskop individuals might be indicative of particularly high general intelligence. Anthropologist John Hawks harshly criticized the depiction of the Boskop fossils in the book and in the book's review article in Discover magazine.
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Earliest evidence of humans outside Africa
11 July 2018
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44797323
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Early European modern humans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_European_modern_humans
Early European modern humans (EEMH) or Cro-Magnons were the first early modern humans (Homo sapiens) to settle in Europe, continuously occupying the continent possibly from as early as 48,000 years ago. They interacted and interbred with the indigenous Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis), who went extinct 40 to 35 thousand years ago; and from 37,000 years ago onwards, all EEMH descended from a single founder population which contributes ancestry to present-day Europeans. EEMH produced Upper Palaeolithic cultures, the first major one being the Aurignacian, which was succeeded by the Gravettian by 30,000 years ago. The Gravettian split into the Epi-Gravettian in the east and Solutrean in the west, due to major climate degradation during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), peaking 21,000 years ago. As Europe warmed, the Solutrean evolved into the Magdalenian by 20,000 years ago, and these peoples recolonised Europe. The Magdalenian and Epi-Gravettian gave way to Mesolithic cultures as big game animals were dying out and the Last Glacial Period drew to a close.
EEMH were anatomically similar to present-day Europeans, but were more robust, having broader and shorter faces, more prominent brow ridges, and bigger teeth. Compared to most present-day Europeans, EEMH had shorter upper jaws, more horizontally oriented cheekbones, and more rectangular eye sockets, which are more frequent in East Asian populations. The first EEMH would have probably had dark skin; natural selection for lighter skin would not begin until 30,000 years ago, and whiter skin would not become prevalent in Europe until the Bronze Age. Before the LGM, EEMH had overall low population density, tall stature similar to post-industrial humans, expansive trade routes stretching as long as 900 km (560 mi), and hunted big game animals. EEMH had much higher populations than the Neanderthals, possibly due to higher fertility rates; life expectancy for both species was typically under 40 years. Following the LGM, population density increased as communities travelled less frequently (though for longer distances), and the need to feed so many more people in tandem with the increasing scarcity of big game caused them to rely more heavily on small or aquatic game, and more frequently participate in game drive systems and slaughter whole herds at a time. The EEMH arsenal included spears, spear-throwers, harpoons, and possibly throwing sticks and Palaeolithic dogs. EEMH likely commonly constructed temporary huts while moving around, and Gravettian peoples notably made large huts on the East European Plain out of mammoth bones.
EEMH are well renowned for creating a diverse array of artistic works, including cave paintings, Venus figurines, perforated batons, animal figurines, and geometric patterns. They may have been decorating their bodies with ochre crayons and perhaps tattoos, scarification, and piercings. The exact symbolism of these works remains enigmatic, but EEMH are generally (though not universally) thought to have practiced shamanism, in which cave art — specifically of those depicting human/animal hybrids — played a central part. They also wore decorative beads, and plant-fibre clothes dyed with various plant-based dyes, which were possibly used as status symbols. For music, they produced bone flutes and whistles, and possibly also bullroarers, rasps, drums, idiophones, and other instruments. They buried their dead, though possibly only people which had achieved or were born into high status received burial.
Remains of Palaeolithic cultures have been known for centuries, but they were initially interpreted in a creationist model, wherein they represented antediluvian peoples which were wiped out by the Great Flood. Following the conception and popularisation of evolution in the mid-to-late 19th century, EEMH became the subject of much scientific racism, with early race theories allying with Nordicism and Pan-Germanism. Such historical race concepts were overturned by the mid-20th century. During the first wave feminism movement, the Venus figurines were notably interpreted as evidence of some matriarchal religion, though such claims had mostly died down in academia by the 1970s.
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Neanderthal vs. Cro-Magnon: What's the Difference?
September 6, 2013
https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/19428/neanderthal-vs-cro-magnon-whats-difference
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Europe's Ancestors: Cro-Magnon 28,000 Years Old Had DNA Like Modern Humans
July 16, 2008
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080715204741.htm
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Why Don't We Call Them 'Cro-Magnon' Anymore?
November 14, 2019
'Cro-Magnon' Versus 'Anatomically Modern Humans'
https://www.thoughtco.com/we-dont-call-them-cro-magnon-170738
What Are Cro-Magnons?
"Cro-Magnon" is the name scientists once used to refer to what are now called Early Modern Humans or Anatomically Modern Humans—people who lived in our world at the end of the last ice age (ca. 40,000–10,000 years ago); they lived alongside Neanderthals for about 10,000 of those years. They were given the name "Cro-Magnon" because, in 1868, parts of five skeletons were discovered in a rock shelter of that name, located in the famous Dordogne Valley of France.
In the 19th century, scientists compared these skeletons to Neanderthal skeletons that had been found earlier in similarly dated sites like Paviland, Wales and a little later at Combe Capelle and Laugerie-Basse in France. They decided that the findings were different enough from the Neanderthals—and from us—to give them a different name.
Why Don't We Still Call Them Cro-Magnon?
A century and a half of research since then has led scholars to change their minds. The new belief is that the physical dimensions of the so-called "Cro-Magnon" are not sufficiently different enough from modern humans to warrant a separate designation. Instead, scientists today use "Anatomically Modern Human" (AMH) or "Early Modern Human" (EMH) to designate the Upper Paleolithic human beings who looked a lot like us but did not have the complete suite of modern human behaviors (or rather, who were in the process of developing those behaviors).
Another reason for the change is that the term "Cro-Magnon" doesn't refer to a particular taxonomy or even a particular group located in a particular place. It was simply not precise enough, and so most paleontologists prefer to use AMH or EMH to refer to the immediate ancestor hominins we modern humans evolved from.
Identifying Early Modern Humans
As recently as 2005, the way scientists differentiated between modern humans and early modern humans was by looking for subtle differences in their physical characteristics: The two are generally very similar physically, but EMH are a bit more robust, particularly in femora (upper leg bones). These slight differences have been attributed to the shift away from long-distance hunting strategies to sedentism and agriculture.
However, those types of speciation differentiation have all but disappeared from the scientific literature. Considerable overlap in physical measurements of various human forms has made it difficult to draw distinctions. More important is the successful recovery of ancient DNA from modern humans, early modern humans, Neanderthals, and the new human species that was first identified with mtDNA: Denisovans. This new method of differentiation—genetics—is far more definitive than using physical characteristics.
The Genetic Makeup of Early Modern Humans
Neanderthals and early modern humans shared our planet for several thousand years. One result of the new genetic studies is that both Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes have been found in non-African modern individuals. That suggests that where they came into contact, Neanderthals, Denisovans, and anatomically modern humans interbred.
Levels of Neanderthal ancestry in modern humans vary from region to region, but all that can be firmly concluded today is that the relationships existed. Neanderthals all died out between 41,000–39,000 years ago—probably at least partly a result of competition with early modern humans—but their genes and those of the Denisovans live on within us.
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Surprising DNA found in ancient people from southern Europe
March 14, 2019
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/ancient-iberians-dna-from-steppe-men-spain
A study of 8,000 years of genetics from Spain and Portugal yields a surprisingly complex picture of the inhabitants' ancestry.
Since the beginning of human migration, the Iberian Peninsula—home of modern-day Spain and Portugal—has been a place where the cultures of Africa, Europe, and the Mediterranean have mingled.
In a new paper in the journal Science, a group of 111 population geneticists and archaeologists charted 8,000 years of genetics in the region. They paint a picture that shows plenty of genetic complexity, but that also hints at a single mysterious migration about 4,500 years ago that completely shook up ancient Iberians’ DNA.
The team searched DNA evidence for clues to how and when various populations became part of the Iberian Peninsula’s gene pool. They sequenced the genomes of 271 ancient Iberians, then combined that information with previously published data about 132 other ancient peninsula dwellers.
The men from the steppes
Beginning in the Bronze Age, the genetic makeup of the area changed dramatically. Starting in about 2,500 B.C., genes associated with people from the steppes near the Black and Caspian seas, in what is now Russia, can be detected in the Iberin gene pool. And from about 2,500 B.C. much of the population’s DNA was replaced with that of steppe people.
The “Steppe Hypothesis” holds that this group spread east into Asia and west into Europe at around the same time—and the current study shows that they made it to Iberia, too. Though 60 percent of the region’s total DNA remained the same, the Y chromosomes of the inhabitants were almost entirely replaced by 2,000 B.C. That suggests a massive influx of men from the steppes, since Y chromosomes are carried only by men.
“It looks like the influence was very male dominated,” says Miguel Vilar, a genetic anthropologist who serves as senior program officer for the National Geographic Society.
Who were these men—and did they come in peace? Vilar, who was not involved with the study, speculates that the steppe men may have come on horses bearing bronze weapons, hence ushering in the Bronze Age to the area. He compares the migration to the one the indigenous peoples of North and South America faced when the first Europeans landed in the 1490s.
“It shows that you could have a migration all the way across the whole continent (of Europe) and still have a heavy influence on this far extreme,” he says.
Although bronze came into use in Iberia around that time, no other distinct traces of steppe culture have yet been found. The study did show that people in present-day Basque, who speak Western Europe’s only non-Indo-European language, carry genetic markers closely related to those of the steppe people. And unlike modern Spaniards, modern-day Basques don’t show the same amount of genetic mixing that happened on the peninsula over the centuries.
The team also found a single individual with North African DNA from a site in the middle of Iberia. His bones date to about 2,500 B.C.
“At the beginning I thought it was a mistake,” says Iñigo Olalde, a population geneticist who led the study.
When he replicated his work, it checked out. The presence of that lone African suggests early, sporadic interchange between Iberia and North Africa, making sense of archaeological discoveries of African ivory at Copper-Age Iberian digs. But the team thinks that North African ancestry only became widespread in Iberia in about the last 2,000 years.
Ice Age diversity
The study forms a complex picture of the genetic history of Spain—one that’s reinforced in a companion piece published in the journal Current Biology. In that study, researchers from Spain and Germany found that hunter-gatherers and farmers living on the Iberian Peninsula also were more genetically diverse than previously thought. They found evidence that different hunter-gatherer cultures mixed on the warm Iberian Peninsula, which they used as an Ice Age refuge 19,000 years ago. Newer farmers to the area mixed with the hunter-gatherers later.
”The DNA was a surprise,” says doctoral student Vanessa Villalba-Mouco, an archaeogeneticist who led the research for the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Germany and the University of Zaragoza in Spain. “Clues about what happened in that moment help us understand the evolution of the next period. We need to sample more individuals to know their history in a more accurate way.”
Ancient DNA work “is helping us deconstruct the idea that that we have distinct geographic populations like Africans or Asians or Europeans,” says Vilar. “Not only are people living in areas like Iberia heterogeneous, but they were the product of different waves of migration themselves.”
For Olalde, the work was an unprecedented chance to explore the genetic history of the place he calls home. “Being able to do this study was a dream for me,” he says.
And working with a large sample sizes—rare in studies that must rely on DNA extracted from bone that is thousands of years old—was particularly exciting for the Olalde, who works in the David Reich Lab at Harvard Medical School. “Being able to analyze nearly 400 individuals is crazy. Thanks to them, we now have a much richer picture of all the different peoples who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula and how they shaped present-day populations.”
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Europeans, Africans have different immune systems, and Neanderthals are partly to thank
2016
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161020142948.htm
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Turns out blacks are a completely different subspecies of human after all proven in genetic study
2014
https://www.godlikeproductions.com/forum1/message2610338/pg1?c1=1&c2=1&disclaimer=Continue
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The Truth About The Homo Sapiens Subspecies That Went Extinct
Sept. 18, 2020
https://www.grunge.com/248920/the-truth-about-the-homo-sapiens-subspecies-that-went-extinct/
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Smaller Than Species: Subspecies, Races, and Breeds
https://www.dummies.com/education/science/smaller-than-species-subspecies-races-and-breeds/
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What's the difference between a race and a subspecies?
https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-difference-between-a-race-and-a-subspecies?share=1
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Genomic Comparisons Reveal Microevolutionary Differences in Mycobacterium abscessus Subspecies
23 October 2017
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2017.02042/full
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Evolutionary Genomics of Salmonella enterica Subspecies
https://mbio.asm.org/content/4/2/e00579-12.abstract
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Subspecies and the philosophy of science
25 March 2015
https://bioone.org/journals/the-auk/volume-132/issue-2/AUK-15-1.1/Subspecies-and-the-philosophy-of-science/10.1642/AUK-15-1.1.full
The Subspecies Debate
No taxonomic rank has been more maligned or misunderstood than the subspecies. Attacks on this rank's value date back to the early 1950s (e.g., Wilson and Brown 1953), the principal argument against it being that subspecies are “arbitrary,” a charge that could be levied with equal force at the genus, family, or any other higher rank (which tend not to correspond across phyla or kingdoms; Avise and Mitchell 2007). Although there may be merit in setting aside the whole of the Linnaean hierarchy (Ereshefsky 2001), it remains the dominant way in which we classify organisms and, hence, communicate about ecological communities, phylogenetic relationships, biogeographic processes, and a host of other basic topics in ecology and evolutionary biology. Linnaeus's scheme is likely to be with us for years to come, so we ought to determine how best to standardize its use across all organisms and ensure that classification into established ranks follows a logical and repeatable procedure. This last point, repeatability, is an often neglected cornerstone of the scientific process. Many criticized Sibley and Ahlquist (1990) when they opted to allow particular levels of Ît50, a measure of the difference in temperature at which DNA heteroduplexes and homoduplexes denature, to assign ranks of family, tribe, order, and the like—yet, if nothing else, the procedure and the assignment were repeatable.
Strides have been made to reduce subjectivity in other ranks, most notably that of species, a rank even Darwin refused to define despite its appearing prominently in the title of his famous book. Darwin considered species limits arbitrary, and modern debates about the relative virtues of particular species concepts have done little to address the inherent subjectivity of, say, what exactly it means to be reproductively isolated (how much hybridization is too much?) or how exactly to identify a clade that corresponds to something above an isolated population yet below a wholesale radiation (i.e. the “diagnosable clusters” of the phylogenetic species concept; Cracraft 1983). A crucial step in the direction of objectivity has been a recent emphasis on effect size (of trait variability) to determine species and subspecies limits (Patten 2010, Tobias et al. 2010, Winker 2010). Akin to Sibley and Ahlquist's (1990) Ît50 thresholds, the idea is that differences of a particular magnitude—a large effect size—for a trait being examined will indicate whether 2 populations are 2 species (Tobias et al. 2010). A similar argument can be made to assess whether 2 populations correspond to 2 subspecies (Patten 2010), provided it is clear that there are distinct thresholds that determine species limits and subspecies limits.
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Subspecies: what should they be in the face of cryptic species
https://www.researchgate.net/post/Subspecies_what_should_they_be_in_the_face_of_cryptic_species
Some of the comments seem to be based on misinterpretation of the terms "species" and "subspecies". Species is defined by evolutionary separation ("evolving separately from others and with its own unitary evolutionary role and tendencies"), i.e. by permanently broken gene flow (no, or at most only occasional and/or ineffective hybridization); if such [group of] population[-s] does not show clear morphological differences it is called "cryptic", but anyway it is a perfectly "good" species: morphological distinctiveness is irrelevant for the general definition of species category (but of course it may be useful as a "marker" in recognition of species in particular cases, e.g. in case of allochronic or allopatric populations - see the final paragraphs of the attached paper). On the other hand, subspecies is a "morpho-geographical" category: a not isolated reproductively but morphologically significantly (a "rule of thumb" criterion is Amadon's 75% rule) distinctive allo- or para-patric [group of] population[-s]; thus, "cryptic" species, as being morphologically indistinctive, can only in exceptional, never or but extremely rarely realized in practice, situations show subspecific differentiation. Generally, the category of subspecies is very useful as largely generalized but highly informative illustration of patterns of geographic variability, in clarification of many ecological, evolutionary and/or palaeogeographic questions &c., but of course only if it is correctly interpreted and consistently applied!
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{Blacks and Indians would be considered a Cryptic Species and a Subspecies}.
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A Burst of Clues to South Asians’ Genetic Ancestry
September 5, 2019
https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/09/indus-valley-civilization-dna-has-long-eluded-researchers/597481/
A tiny ear bone from more than 4,000 years ago is shaping the story of migration and heritage in India.
The climate of South Asia is not kind to ancient DNA. It is hot and it rains. In monsoon season, water seeps into ancient bones in the ground, degrading the old genetic material. So by the time archeologists and geneticists finally got DNA out of a tiny ear bone from a 4,000-plus-year-old skeleton, they had already tried dozens of samples—all from cemeteries of the mysterious Indus Valley civilization, all without any success.
The Indus Valley civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization, flourished 4,000 years ago in what is now India and Pakistan. It surpassed its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, in size. Its trade routes stretched thousands of miles. It had agriculture and planned cities and sewage systems. And then, it disappeared. “The Indus Valley civilization has been an enigma for South Asians. We read about it in our textbooks,” says Priya Moorjani, a computational biologist at the University of California at Berkeley. “The end of the civilization was quite mysterious.” No one alive today is sure who the people of the Indus Valley civilization were or where they went.
A pair of newly published papers use ancient DNA to shed light on the Indus Valley civilization and the entire history of people in South and Central Asia. The first study is a sweeping collection of 523 genomes—300 to 12,000 years old—from a region spanned by Iran, Russia, and India. By comparing the results with modern South Asians’ genomes, the study showed that South Asians today descended from a mix of local hunter-gatherers, Iranian-related groups, and steppe pastoralists who came by way of Central Asia. It’s the largest number of ancient genomes reported in a single paper, all made possible by an ancient DNA “factory” the geneticist David Reich has built at Harvard. (Moorjani completed her doctorate in Reich’s lab and is a co-author on this paper.)
The second study focuses on just a single genome from the Indus Valley civilization: I6113, a woman who died more than 4,000 years ago. Her skeleton was the only one—out of more than 100 samples the researchers tested from 10 different Indus Valley–civilization sites—that yielded ancient DNA, but even then it was contaminated and of poor quality. “We had to squeeze, squeeze, squeeze the sample really hard, more than we’ve done in any other sample we’ve ever tried,” says Reich, who is also a senior author of the second paper. The team ultimately tried to sequence DNA from I6113’s ear bone more than 100 times, each time yielding a tiny dribble of genetic data. That I6113 gets her own paper is a testament to both the technical difficulty of sequencing her DNA and the importance of the Indus Valley civilization. Even before publication, rumors were swirling in India about what the ancient DNA would show, and how it would play into the politics of the Hindu-nationalist ruling party.
What’s intriguing about I6113’s DNA is what she lacks: any of the steppe ancestry that is widespread in contemporary South Asians. Instead, she appeared to have a mix of Southeast Asian hunter-gatherer and Iranian-related ancestry.
The two studies piece together a history of how the people of the Indus Valley civilization are related to South Asians today. After the decline of the civilization 4,000 years ago, people with a genetic makeup similar to I6113 mixed with people of Southeast Asian hunter-gatherer ancestry to form what has been called Ancestral South Indians. From 4,000 to 3,000 years ago, other people descended from the Indus Valley civilization mixed with people of steppe-pastoralist ancestry, who likely brought horses and the Indo-European languages now spoken on the subcontinent, to form a group that has been called Ancestral North Indians. These two ancestral groups then mixed as well, giving rise to the great diversity of ethnic groups in South Asia. Go back far enough, and both sides trace to the Indus Valley civilization, which appears to be the single largest source of ancestry for modern South Asians.
The team studying I6113 noticed something intriguing about the Iranian-related portion of her ancestry, too. It appears to date to before the advent of farming in the Fertile Crescent. This suggests that farming did not, as many have thought, spread to South Asia through the migration of people from the Near East. It may have arisen independently in South Asia or spread through cultural contact.
Of course, this is a lot to rest on a single genome. “That would be like taking a single sample from Tokyo and trying to generalize about the whole ancestry of Japan,” Reich admits. But the team’s confidence in its results was bolstered when the researches found that I6113 was genetically similar to 11 people from the 523-genome paper who were buried not in South Asia, but in what is now Iran and Turkmenistan. These 11 people were also “outliers” in their own burial sites. The team thinks they may have been migrants or the children of migrants from the Indus Valley civilization. Archaeological evidence suggests people traveled between these regions as well.
The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were cosmopolitan places, which also makes it harder to generalize from one genome. J. Mark Kenoyer, an anthropologist at the University of Wisconsin at Madison who was not an author of either study, cautions that only a small number of people who lived in these cities were buried in cemeteries—probably elites. The rest might have been cremated, or their bones simply left uncovered and thus scattered over time. “The cemeteries of the Indus civilization do not represent the people of the Indus civilization. They represent one community,” he says.
Still, more cemetery samples would be better than just one. The research team behind I6113 is trying to sequence more bones from the Indus Valley civilization. Vasant Shinde, an archeologist at Deccan College whose team excavated I6113, says the attempts to get ancient DNA from Indus Valley–civilization sites have been a years-long learning process. To prevent contamination with modern DNA, team members now wear gowns and masks even while excavating in the field. They do not reuse excavation instruments from burial to burial. Niraj Rai, a geneticist who was a visiting fellow in Reich’s lab, also set up an ancient-DNA lab at the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences in Lucknow, India, where I6113’s DNA was extracted. “This is beginning,” Shinde says. “This is not the end.” He expects more ancient DNA to come.
In India, ancient DNA has generated intense interest, says Tony Joseph, the author of Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From. He told me his book, published last December, is already in its seventh printing. After a preliminary version of the large Central and South Asian genomes study was posted on bioRxiv last March, it became the site’s most downloaded preprint of 2018. The preprint generated controversy, too, especially the finding that many Indians have ancestry from steppe pastoralists. Hindu nationalists, as Joseph has written, believe that Aryans—who originated in India and spread through Europe and Asia—are the source of Indian civilization. This is contradicted by ancient DNA that finds the population history in India itself contains far more mixing and migration. (Further complicating things, Nazis co-opted the term Aryans to mean something different, a master race of European origin.) A prominent MP even attacked Reich when the preprint came out, tweeting out an article titled, “There Are Lies, Damned Lies and (Harvard’s ‘Third’ Reich and Co’s) Statistics.” Reich, who has experienced how fraught talking about genetics and identity can be, acknowledged the political interest in his work, but declined to get into it.
Ancient DNA has captured the public imagination precisely because it promises an answer to questions like Where did we come from? and Who are we?—questions that also have deep political undercurrents. To sequence I6113’s DNA is to draw genetic connections between an ancient civilization and the people who live in the region today, to add fuel to arguments about who can lay claim to a cultural inheritance. All this, contained in a half-inch wisp of an ear bone.
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Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia
Contents
1 Overview
2 mtDNA
2.1 Macrohaplogroup M
2.2 Macrohaplogroup R
2.2.1 Haplogroup U
3 Y chromosome
3.1 Haplogroup H
3.2 Haplogroup J2
3.3 Haplogroup L
3.3.1 India
3.3.2 Pakistan
3.3.3 Sri Lanka
3.4 Haplogroup R1a1
3.4.1 India
3.4.2 Pakistan
3.4.3 Sri Lanka
3.4.4 Maldives
3.4.5 Nepal
3.5 Haplogroup R2
3.5.1 India
3.5.2 Pakistan
3.5.3 Sri Lanka
3.5.4 Maldives
3.5.5 Nepal
3.6 Haplogroup O2a (O-K18)
4 Reconstructing South Asian population history
4.1 mtDNA variation
4.2 Y Chromosome variation
4.3 Autosomal DNA variation
4.3.1 AASI-ANI-ASI
4.3.2 Genetic distance between caste groups and tribes
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
7.1 Further reading
8 Sources
9 External links
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Who was here first? A new study explains the origins of ancient Indians
April 3, 2018
https://qz.com/india/1243436/aryan-migration-scientists-use-dna-to-explain-origins-of-ancient-indians/
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Rare Ancient DNA Provides Window Into a 5,000-Year-Old South Asian Civilization
September 5, 2019
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished alongside Mesopotamia and Egypt, but the early society remains shrouded in mystery
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/rare-ancient-dna-south-asia-reveals-complexities-little-known-civilization-180973053/
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How ancient DNA may rewrite prehistory in India
30 December 2018
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-46616574
New research using ancient DNA is rewriting prehistory in India - and shows that its civilisation is the result of multiple ancient migrations, writes Tony Joseph.
Who are the Indians? And where did they come from?
In the last few years, the debate over these questions has become more and more heated.
Hindu right-wingers believe the source of Indian civilisation are people who called themselves Aryans - a nomadic tribe of horse-riding, cattle-rearing warriors and herders who composed Hinduism's oldest religious texts, the Vedas.
The Aryans, they argue, originated from India and then spread across large parts of Asia and Europe, helping set up the family of Indo-European languages that Europeans and Indians still speak today.
As it happens, many 19th Century European ethnographers and, of course, most famously, Adolf Hitler, also considered Aryans the master race who had conquered Europe, although the German leader considered them to be of Nordic lineage.
When scholars use the term Aryan, it refers to a group of people who spoke Indo-European languages and called themselves Aryans. And that is how I have used it in this article. It does not refer to a race, as Hitler used it or as some in the Hindu right wing use it.
Many Indian scholars have questioned the "out of India" thesis, arguing that these Indo-European language speakers - or Aryans - were possibly just one of many streams of prehistoric migrants who arrived in India after the decline of an earlier civilisation. This was the Harappan (or Indus Valley) civilisation, which thrived in what is now north-western India and Pakistan around the same time as the Egyptians and Mesopotamians.
However, Hindu right-wingers believe the Harappan civilisation was also an Aryan or Vedic civilisation.
Tensions between the two groups backing these opposing theories have only increased in the last few years, especially since the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) came to power in India in 2014.
Into this long-running dispute has now stepped the relatively new discipline of population genetics, which has started using ancient DNA to figure out when people moved where.
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Modern DNA reveals ancient origins of Indian population
May 8, 2017
Where did the earliest Indians come from?
The origins of the peoples of the Indian Subcontinent remains a much debated topic among scientists. But new research has offered some clarity on the matter.
https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2017/05/08/Modern-DNA-reveals-ancient-origins-of-Indian-population/6721494272565/
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Indian study of genetics of Andaman Islanders uncovers new human ancestor
https://www.sott.net/article/323869-Indian-study-of-genetics-of-Andaman-Islanders-uncovers-new-human-ancestor
A study published a few days ago in the journal Nature Genetics
has found the presence of a third and a new ancestor to humans — a
sibling of the Neanderthal and the Denisovan. The study compared the
complete DNA sequences of the Jarawas and the Onges living in the
Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal with the DNA sequences of
Neanderthals and Denisovans, and they found some notable differences in
the DNA sequences.
"In this study we have found in the DNA sequence of modern humans,
specially in the Jarawa and Onge populations, fragments of DNA that
belong neither to the Neanderthal nor the Denisovan nor even to most of
the contemporary human groups," says Partha P. Majumder, one of the
corresponding authors of the paper and Director of the National
Institute of Biomedical Genomics in Kalyani, West Bengal.
"Further statistical analysis of the DNA segments showed that the best
explanation of the origin of these DNA fragments is that they belong to
an unknown third human ancestor that is already extinct. The unknown
human ancestor is like an evolutionary sibling of the Neanderthal and
the Denisovan."
A small proportion of DNA from the unknown extinct hominin is
found only in the population from South and Southeast Asia while it is
absent from Europeans and East Asians. "That there is an ancestor of
modern humans that was not discovered earlier is a major finding of our
work," he says.
Though the remains of this extinct hominin have not been recovered
yet, Dr. Majumder says the genome results provide definitive evidence
that Homo heidelbergensis had given rise to multiple lineages,
not just the Neanderthal and the Denisovan. The modern humans,
Neanderthals and Denisovans all shared a common ancestor about 600,000
years ago.
Though the traditional approach is find fossils to conclusively prove
the presence of a new ancestral lineage, thanks to genomics, scientists
are today no longer completely dependent on fossils.
The whole genomes of 60 individuals drawn from a carefully sampled set
of diverse ethnic groups of mainland India and 10 Jarawas and Onges were
sequenced. In order to make the inferences more robust and enable
comparisons, the genome data from other sources — 1000 Genomes study,
Great Apes Genome Project, and 69 Genomes project of Complete Genomics —
were also used in the joint statistical analysis.
The second major finding by the team was in ascertaining the reasons for
the short stature of the Jarawas and Onges, and in finding out if it
was because of their direct ancestral relationship to some population in
Africa. The researchers identified 107 genes that have evolved under
the impact of positive, advantageous natural selection. About 10 per
cent (11 of 107) of these genes are involved in the determination of
height. "What we found is that the short stature of the Jarawas and
Onges is due to natural selection acting on genes that are known to
determine height," says Dr. Majumder.
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New Study Shows Neanderthals Were Not Our Ancestors
- Summary:
- In the most recent and mathematically rigorous study to date determining whether Neanderthals contributed to the evolution of modern humans, a team of anthropologists examining the skulls of modern humans and Neanderthals as well as 11 existing species of non-human primates found strong evidence that Neanderthals differ so greatly from Homo sapiens as to constitute a different species.
- https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040127085316.htm
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Near Eastern brachycephals; Syria, Armenia, and the Caucasus
https://www.theapricity.com/snpa/chapter-XII18.htm
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Armenoid race
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenoid_race
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What did original Arabs look like
https://selfuni.wordpress.com/tag/what-did-original-arabs-look-like/
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Profile of genetic disorders prevalent in northeast region of Cairo, Egypt
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1110863011000620
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Some Polynesians Carry DNA of Ancient Native Americans
2020
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/08/science/polynesian-ancestry.html
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Ancient DNA Yields Unprecedented Insights into Mysterious Chaco Civilization
February 22, 2017
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ancient-dna-yields-unprecedented-insights-into-mysterious-chaco-civilization/
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No 'lost tribes' or aliens: what ancient DNA reveals about American prehistory
Nov 2017
New genetics research settles questions about the peoples of Newfoundland and Labrador – and helps highlight what genetics can’t tell us
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/nov/15/no-lost-tribes-or-aliens-what-ancient-dna-reveals-about-american-prehistory
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Y-DNA test reveals ‘Irish-American’ is actually Native American
https://www.abroadintheyard.com/y-dna-test-reveals-irish-american-is-actually-native-american/
Amateur genealogist Steve Woodall believed that his direct male-line ancestors, and carriers of the Woodall surname, descended from Irish stock. But, despite years of research, he could not reach further back than his 3 x great-grandfather, William Wagner Woodall, born in 1818 in North Carolina. To get past the dead end, Steve turned to DNA testing – and got an unexpected result. He told KUHF Houston Public Radio, “We got the DNA test that says that it appears that we’re Native Americans and we’re like what? We’re what?“
Steve’s European appearance gave no hint of Native American heritage, yet Family Tree DNA confirmed his Y-DNA haplogroup as Q1a3a1. This haplogroup is strictly associated with the indigenous peoples of the Americas and is defined by the genetic marker M3, which occurred on the Q lineage roughly 10-15 thousand years ago as the migration from Siberia into the Americas was in progress. Steve is now searching for Y-DNA matches with other Q1a3a1 males through FTDNA and ysearch, to enable him to track his Native American lineage before William Wagner Woodall. He has already discovered 4 other Woodalls whose markers match.
Steve has posted some fascinating details of William Wagner Woodall’s life (1818 – 1906) on geni.com. William was a full-bloodied Cherokee Indian and possibly acquired the Woodall surname by adoption; he tended to be vague about his origins on official 19th century returns, as it was common for Native Americans at the time to deny their roots and blend in with white populations. William would have been 12 years old when the US government passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, a process of cultural transformation originally proposed by George Washington to open up land for white settlement. This led to the infamous ‘Trail of Tears’ between 1831 and 1838, the forced relocation of almost 50,000 Native Americans from their homelands in the southeastern United States to the newly designated ‘Indian Territory’ west of the Mississippi. Many Native Americans died from exposure, disease and starvation en route, including 4,000 of the 15,000 relocated Cherokee...
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Ancient DNA hints at the genetic lineage of today’s Native Americans
Wednesday, June 5, 2019
By studying ancient teeth and bones, researchers have come closer than ever to identifying a Native American ancestor, hailing from what’s now Siberia.
By the end of the last ice age, some 14,500 years ago (and possibly long before), humans had made their way into the Americas, traversing a land mass called Beringia that bridged what is now Siberia to Alaska. These early peoples eventually became indigenous Americans, including Alaska Natives, Canadian First Nations, and Native Americans.
But many of the details of these early migrations, of which there were multiple, have remained mostly unclear—including which of the many cultural groups that once populated ancient Siberia successfully crossed the Bering Sea.
Now, findings from two new studies published today in the journal Nature may provide long-awaited clues about the mysterious ancestors of these prehistoric peoples. Though both studies leverage the power of ancient DNA to enrich the human family tree, both also raise further questions about the complex migrations that ultimately yielded modern populations.
In the first study, a team of scientists led by Eske Willerslev, a geneticist at the University of Copenhagen, attempted to pinpoint a lineage in ancient Siberia with strong genetic links to Native Americans. The researchers sequenced genomes from 34 individuals that inhabited Siberia, Beringia, and Alaska between 600 and 31,600 years ago, and compared them to DNA from modern Native Americans. The nearest match was a woman the team calls Kolyma1, who lived in northeastern Siberia some 9,800 years ago. About two-thirds of her genome bears a remarkable similarity to those of living Native Americans, making her “the closest we have ever gotten to a Native American ancestor outside the Americas,” Willerslev told Michael Price at Science.
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/indigenous-americans-siberia/
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Lost Native American Ancestor Revealed in Ancient Child’s DNA
Study of 11,500-year-old bones offer surprising clues about the origins of New World genetic diversity.
January 3, 2018
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/alaska-dna-ancient-beringia-genome
A baby girl who lived some 11,500 years ago survived for just six weeks in the harsh climate of central Alaska, but her brief life is providing a surprising and challenging wealth of information to modern researchers.
Her genome is the oldest-yet complete genetic profile of a New World human. But if that isn’t enough, her genes also reveal the existence of a previously unknown population of people who are related to—but older and genetically distinct from— modern Native Americans.
This new information helps sketch in more details about how, when, and where the ancestors of all Native Americans became a distinct group, and how they may have dispersed into and throughout the New World.
The baby’s DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene. Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward River Sun site in 2013 , named this new group “Ancient Beringians.”
The discovery of the baby’s bones, named Xach'itee'aanenh T'eede Gaay, or Sunrise Child-Girl in a local Athabascan language, was completely unexpected, as were the genetic results, Potter says.
Found in 2006 and accessible only by helicopter, the Upward River Sun site is located in the dense boreal forest of central Alaska’s Tanana River Valley. The encampment was buried under feet of sand and silt, an acidic environment that makes the survival of organic artifacts exceedingly rare. Potter previously excavated the cremated remains of a three-year-old child from a hearth pit in the encampment, and it was beneath this first burial that the six-week-old baby and a second, even younger infant were found.
A genomics team in Denmark, including University of Copenhagen geneticist Eske Willerslev, performed the sequencing work on the remains, comparing the child’s genome with the genes of 167 ancient and contemporary populations from around the world. The results appeared today in the journal Nature.
Oldest Human Skeleton in Americas Found in Underwater Cave
In a pitch black, 140-foot-deep underwater cave, three divers make a stunning 13,000-year-old discovery: the oldest complete human skeleton ever found in the Americas.
“We didn’t know this population even existed,” Potter says. “Now we know they were here for many thousands of years, and that they were really successful. How did they do it? How did they change? We now have examples of two genetic groups of people who were adapting to this very harsh landscape.”
The genetic analysis points towards a divergence of all ancient Native Americans from a single east Asian source population somewhere between 36,000 to 25,000 years ago—well before humans crossed into Beringia, an area that includes the land bridge connecting Siberia and Alaska at the end of the last ice age. That means that somewhere along the way, either in eastern Asia or in Beringia itself, a group of people became isolated from other east Asians for about 10,000 years, long enough to become a unique strain of humanity.
The girl’s genome also shows that the Beringians became genetically distinct from all other Native Americans around 20,000 years ago. But since humans in North America are not reliably documented before 14,600 years ago, how and where these two groups could have been separated long enough to become genetically distinct is still unclear.
The new study posits two new possibilities for how the separation could have happened.
The first is that the two groups became isolated while still in east Asia, and that they crossed the land bridge separately—perhaps at different times, or using different routes.
A second theory is that a single group moved out of Asia, then split into Beringians and ancient Native Americans once in Beringia. The Beringians lingered in the west and interior of Alaska, while the ancestors of modern Native Americans continued on south some time around 15,700 years ago.
“It’s less like a tree branching out and more like a delta of streams and rivers that intersect and then move apart,” says Miguel Vilar, lead scientist for National Geographic’s Genographic Project. “Twenty years ago, we thought the peopling of America seemed quite simple, but then it turns out to be more complicated than anyone thought.”
John Hoffecker, who studies the paleoecology of Beringia at the University of Colorado-Boulder, says there is still plenty of room for debate about the geographic locations of the ancestral splits. But the new study fits well with where the thinking has been heading for the last decade, he adds.
“We think there was a great deal more diversity in the original Native American populations than is apparent today, so this is consistent with a lot of other evidence,” Hoffecker says.
However, that same diversity—revealed through research on Native American cranial morphology and tooth structure—creates its own dilemma. How does a relatively small group of New World migrants, barricaded by a challenging climate with no access to fresh genetic material, evolve such a deep bank of differences from their east Asian ancestors? It certainly doesn’t happen over just 15,000 years, Hoffecker insists, referring to the estimated date of divergence of ancient Native Americans from Beringians.
“We’ve been getting these signals of early divergence for decades—the first mitochondrial work in the 1990s from Native Americans were coming up with estimates of 30, 35, even 40,000 years ago,” Hoffecker says. “They were being dismissed by everybody, myself included. Then people began to suspect there were two dates: one for divergence, and one for dispersal, and this study supports that.”
“Knowing about the Beringians really informs us as to how complex the process of human migration and adaptation was,” adds Potter. “It prompts the scientist in all of us to ask better questions, and to be in awe of our capacity as a species to come into such a harsh area and be very successful.”
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Surprise as DNA reveals new group of Native Americans: the ancient Beringians
3 Jan 2018
Genetic analysis of a baby girl who died at the end of the last ice age shows she belonged to a previously unknown ancient group of Native Americans
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/jan/03/ancient-dna-reveals-previously-unknown-group-of-native-americans-ancient-beringians
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Alaskan infant's DNA tells story of 'first Americans'
3 January 2018
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-42555577
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DNA tests stand on shaky ground to define Native American identity
May 09, 2019
https://www.genome.gov/news/news-release/DNA-tests-stand-on-shaky-ground-to-define-Native-American-identity
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Arabian DNA Shows Route of Early Human Migration from Africa
October 21, 2021
https://greekreporter.com/2021/10/21/arabian-dna-africa/
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SUBSPECIES, SEMISPECIES, SUPERSPECIES
2001
http://abacus.gene.ucl.ac.uk/jim/pap/Sub-semi.pdf
II. The subspecies today A. Modern views of subspecies, semispecies, and superspecies The view of Darwin, Wallace, Rensch and Mayr that geographic replacement forms, subspecies, semispecies, which form a continuum with species, were in fact incipient species, has few critics today. Most geographic replacement species or “semispecies” which do not intergrade when they meet must indeed have evolved from previously interbreeding subspecies. Modern genetic data has done nothing to cast doubt on this idea. However, taxonomists were now required to describe subspecies, which has never been seen as a particularly honourable or worthwhile activity in comparison with describing species, especially recently. A strong attack on the subspecies was mounted by Wilson & Brown (1953). Both were systematists working on ants, a group particularly riddled with poorly conceived trinomials at the time. Wilson and Brown argued that subspecies rarely, if ever, could be justified on the basis of multiple characters, and that therefore they were not “real taxa”. The only “real taxa” were species, which in a sense were self-defining because interbreeding prevented divergent genes from flowing from one species to another. Subspecies which interbred at their boundaries, on the other hand, were not so endowed, so that genes and morphological characters could flow between them. Good examples were put forward of subspecies which undoubtedly would be hard to justify on multiple character grounds. This single paper was enormously influential on systematics in the USA, and generations of systematists trained at Harvard and Cornell, where Wilson and Brown worked, and their own many intellectual descendants, and their students’ students in turn, have eschewed the practice of naming subspecies. Through genetic studies we now know, however, that many subspecies separated by hybrid zones differ at multiple morphological, behavioural, and genetic characters (Barton & Hewitt 1985). For instance, the toad Bombina bombina meets its relative Bombina variegata across a broad front in Europe, and differs strongly in call, morphology, skin thickness, the sizes of water bodies used, and egg size, as well as in mitochondrial DNA and protein sequence. Their levels of differentiation suggest that the Bombina have evolved separately for many millions of years. (The two forms hybridize freely in the contact zone – although the hybrids can be shown to suffer some inviability – and so should be classified as members of the same polytypic species under the polytypic or biological species concept, but it has always seemed natural to place such well-defined forms in separate species in spite of the fact they have not truly “speciated”). This situation of multiple character changes has now been shown to be true across very many examples of hybrid zones, and gene flow can be shown to be almost completely blocked by hybrid zones such as these, in spite of abundant hybridization. Thus, while many named subspecies undoubtedly merited Wilson & Brown’s scorn, genetic evidence shows that there are plenty of local replacement forms which hybridize at their boundaries but which do form “real” identifiable taxa, and are valid subspecies under the Wilson & Brown criteria.
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Monotypic taxon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotypic_taxon
In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon.
A
monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller,
infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unispecific" or
"monospecific" is sometimes preferred.
In botanical nomenclature,
a monotypic genus is a genus in the special case where a genus and a
single species are simultaneously described.
In contrast an oligotypic taxon contains more than one but only a very few subordinate taxa.
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Ecotype
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotype
In evolutionary ecology, an ecotype,[note 1] sometimes called ecospecies, describes a genetically distinct geographic variety, population or race within a species, which is genotypically adapted to specific environmental conditions.
Typically, though ecotypes exhibit phenotypic differences (such as in morphology or physiology) stemming from environmental heterogeneity, they are capable of interbreeding with other geographically adjacent ecotypes without loss of fertility or vigor.
Arabis fecunda, a herb endemic to some calcareous soils of Montana, United States, can be divided into two ecotypes. The one "low elevation" group lives near the ground in an arid, warm environment and has thus developed a significantly greater tolerance against drought than the "high elevation" group. The two ecotypes are separated by a horizontal distance of about 100 km.
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Subspecies, Semispecies, Superspecies. A Brief History of Subspecific Taxonomy Variation Below the Level of Species.
2013https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276059079_Subspecies_Semispecies_Superspecies_A_Brief_History_of_Subspecific_Taxonomy_Variation_Below_the_Level_of_Species_2013
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The Superspecies Concept
01 September 1966
Abstract
The concept of “superspecies,” as applied to a monophyletic group of allopatric or nearly allopatric taxa that are known or believed to have evolved to the species level, was introduced to the literature by E. Mayr and by B. Rensch. The concept is of great utility in many studies of evolution and zoogeography. The use of superspecies has been somewhat retarded by the absence of any formalized notation for them in Linnaean nomenclature. It is here proposed that brackets (= square parentheses) enclose the first named species of a superspecies: thus, superspecies Bubo [bubo], or Bubo [bubo] virginianus to indicate that the species virginianus is a member of the superspecies Bubo [bubo]. The term “allospecies” is suggested for the species comprising a superspecies. The use of parentheses ( ) should be restricted to indicating “semispecies,” that is, forms believed to be subspecies, but approaching, or possibly of, species status, e.g., Accipiter (gentilis) atricapillus.
https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article-abstract/15/3/245/1704294?redirectedFrom=PDF
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The central role of Darwinism in the Holocaust
2017
https://creation.com/images/pdfs/tj/j31_3/j31_3_103-111.pdf
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The Horrifying American Roots of Nazi Eugenics
https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/1796
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{Eugenics can be used for good or it can be used for bad.
I think that we should have a majority white race and see to it that the brown race does not overpopulate and burn the rainforests down, this includes poaching too many animals like they are doing}.
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Analytical approaches to subspecies delimitation with genetic data
June 2017
https://swfsc.noaa.gov/publications/CR/2017/2017Martien.pdf
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Subspecies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies
In biological classification, the term subspecies refers to one of two or more populations of a species living in different subdivisions of the species' range and varying from one another by morphological characteristics. A single subspecies cannot be recognized independently: a species is either recognized as having no subspecies at all or at least two, including any that are extinct. The term may be abbreviated to subsp. or ssp. The plural is the same as the singular: subspecies.
In zoology, under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the subspecies is the only taxonomic rank below that of species that can receive a name. In botany and mycology, under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, other infraspecific ranks, such as variety, may be named. In bacteriology and virology, under standard bacterial nomenclature and virus nomenclature, there are recommendations but not strict requirements for recognizing other important infraspecific ranks.
A taxonomist decides whether to recognize a subspecies. A common criterion for recognizing two distinct populations as subspecies rather than full species is the ability of them to interbreed without a fitness penalty. In the wild, subspecies do not interbreed due to geographic isolation or sexual selection. The differences between subspecies are usually less distinct than the differences between species.
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The Subspecies Concept and Its Taxonomic Application
Aug, 2019
http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/eebedia/images/3/3c/WilsonBrown1953.pdf
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Are human races cladistic subspecies?
2015
https://philarchive.org/archive/MNCAHR
Introduction
Much of the consensus that race is biologically unreal follows Richard Lewontin’s (1972) oft-cited claim that racial classification in humans is biologically meaningless because there is more genetic variation within so-called ‘races’ than between so-called ‘races’. Since significant genetic difference between races is often part of the biological concept of race, Lewontin argues that the actual genetic homogeneity across races means that the human species is too genetically similar to be divided into discrete gene pools that might qualify as ‘races’. Andreasen (1998, 2000, 2004, 2005, 2007) proposes that contrary to popular scientific belief, races are biologically real—it is just that we are wrong about them. She argues that where theorists like Lewontin are incorrect in their analysis of human race is by assuming that similarity should be the basis of ‘an objective classification scheme in systematic biology’ (Andreasen 2000: p. S657). These theorists have not considered a genealogical definition of human races as cladistic subspecies (p. S657). Andreasen contends that human races, as cladistic subspecies, are biologically real and that cladistic subspecies are suitable as candidates of the human race...
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Analytical approaches to subspecies delimitation with genetic data
https://swfsc.noaa.gov/publications/CR/2017/2017Martien.pdf
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Cougar Evolution and Subspecies
https://www.felineworlds.com/cougar-evolution-and-subspecies/
Many experts believe that the Cougar moved across the Bering land bridge approximately 8.5 million years ago. Studies of genetic materials show that the Cougar is very closely related genetically to the Cheetah. There is still more than we need to study in order to understand all that has taken place for the Cougar over millions of years. Why were they able to survive when so many other wild cats seem to be at the brink of extinction?
It was once believed that there were 32 subspecies in the world of the Cougar. However, the scientific take on this was all changed after DNA testing became the standard practice. Today we have them identified as 6 subspecies. They include the Argentine Cougar, Costa Rican Cougar, Eastern South American Cougar, North American Cougar, Northern South American Cougar, and Southern South American Puma.
As you can tell from the names, these Cougars are basically classified due to the regions where they live. What is interesting is that at times there will be one captured and it is extremely long distances from home. It isn’t known if these Cougars migrated for food and habitat or if they were moved by humans.
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7 - Recognition of subspecies status mediated by androgen-binding protein (ABP) in the evolution of incipient reinforcement on the European house mouse hybrid zone
August 2012
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/evolution-of-the-house-mouse/recognition-of-subspecies-status-mediated-by-androgenbinding-protein-abp-in-the-evolution-of-incipient-reinforcement-on-the-european-house-mouse-hybrid-zone/70DB0E1E598D129714AD4264D459C91B
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Tiger Evolution Study Reveals Genetic Evidence for Six Subspecies
10/25/18
https://www.newsweek.com/tiger-evolution-study-reveals-genetic-evidence-six-subspecie-1187353
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How Old Are Subspecies? A Tiger's Eye-View of Human Evolution
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40386954?seq=1
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Quagga
The quagga (Equus quagga quagga) was a subspecies of plains zebra that lived in South Africa until becoming extinct late in the 19th century. It was long thought to be a distinct species, but early genetic studies have supported it being a subspecies of plains zebra. A more recent study suggested that it was merely the southernmost cline or ecotype of the species.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quagga
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Genomic islands of differentiation between house mouse subspecies
https://genome.cshlp.org/content/16/6/730.full
Abstract
Figure 2.
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Contrasting evolution of expression differences in the testis between species and subspecies of the house mouse.
11 Oct 2006
https://europepmc.org/article/pmc/pmc1716265
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Molecular Evolution of Cytochrome b of Subterranean Mole Rats, Spalax ehrenbergi Superspecies, in Israel
August 1999
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FPL00006544
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Haptoglobin DNA polymorphism in subterranean mole rats of the Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies in Israel
https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy198911
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Natural epigenetic variation within and among six subspecies of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus
2017
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/jexbio/220/21/4016.full.pdf
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Black squirrel 'super' species? No, just a darker shade of grey
Aug 13, 2019
Black squirrel result of interbreeding between grey and fox squirrels – and they both carry virus
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/aug/13/black-squirrel-super-species-no-just-a-darker-shade-of-grey
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Geospecies and Superspecies in the African Primate Fauna
1 May 2006
https://bioone.org/journals/primate-conservation/volume-2006/issue-20/0898-6207.20.1.75/Geospecies-and-Superspecies-in-the-African-Primate-Fauna/10.1896/0898-6207.20.1.75.full
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THE SUPERSPECIES DROSOPHILA PAULISTORUM
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC300595/
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Plant roots evolved at least twice, and step by step
Aug 23 2018
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/aug/23/lost-worlds-revisited-the-hidden-life-of-plant-roots
(Exceptional cellular preservation of a meristem).
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One of Darwin's evolution theories finally proved
March 17, 2020
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/03/200317215626.htm
Scientists have proved one of Charles Darwin's theories of evolution for the first time -- nearly 140 years after his death.
Laura van Holstein, a PhD student in Biological Anthropology at St John's College, University of Cambridge, and lead author of the research published today (March 18) in Proceedings of the Royal Society, discovered mammal subspecies play a more important role in evolution than previously thought.
Her research could now be used to predict which species conservationists should focus on protecting to stop them becoming endangered or extinct.
A species is a group of animals that can interbreed freely amongst themselves. Some species contain subspecies -- populations within a species that differ from each other by having different physical traits and their own breeding ranges. Northern giraffes have three subspecies that usually live in different locations to each other and red foxes have the most subspecies -- 45 known varieties -- spread all over the world.
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Cassowary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassowary
Cassowaries (/ËkĂŠsÉwÉÉri/), genus Casuarius, are ratites (flightless birds without a keel on their sternum bone) that are native to the tropical forests of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia), East Nusa Tenggara, the Maluku Islands, and northeastern Australia.
There are three extant species. The most common of these, the southern cassowary, is the third-tallest and second-heaviest living bird, smaller only than the ostrich and emu.
Cassowaries feed mainly on fruit, although all species are truly omnivorous and will take a range of other plant food, including shoots and grass seeds, in addition to fungi, invertebrates, and small vertebrates. Cassowaries are very wary of humans, but if provoked they are capable of inflicting serious injuries, including fatal, to both dogs and people. It has often been labeled "the world's most dangerous bird".
Cassowaries (from Malay kasuari) are part of the ratite group, which also includes the emu, rheas, ostriches, and kiwi, as well as the extinct moas and elephant birds. Three extant species are recognised, and one extinct:
Most authorities consider the taxonomic classification above to be monotypic, however, several subspecies of each have been described, and some of them have even been suggested as separate species, e.g., C. (b) papuanus. The taxonomic name C. (b) papuanus also may be in need of revision to Casuarius (bennetti) westermanni. Validation of these subspecies has proven difficult due to individual variations, age-related variations, the scarcity of specimens, the stability of specimens (the bright skin of the head and neck—the basis of describing several subspecies—fades in specimens), and the practice of trading live cassowaries for thousands of years, some of which are likely to have escaped or deliberately introduced to regions away from their origin.
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Cassowary kick
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=cassowary+kick
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Cassowary attacks
http://www.amazingaustralia.com.au/animals/cassowary-attacks.htm
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A new approach to understanding subspecies can boost conservation
February 2, 2017
https://theconversation.com/a-new-approach-to-understanding-subspecies-can-boost-conservation-68364
(A new understanding of subspecies, such as Reichenow’s Helmeted Guineafowl, can help conserve the birds).
Earth is home to an estimated 1 trillion species. To date, only about 1.2 million have been identified and described scientifically. There’s good reason to increase this number. Each species could offer an adaptive, evolutionary solution to the many challenges presented by changing landscapes.
Biological species are often comprised of geographically distinct entities. These are known as subspecies, races or management units.
Taxonomists and phylogeographers armed with this information ought to be able to identify those species with multiple evolutionary “solutions” in progress. These “solutions” should then be catered for to ensure the relevant species can be effectively conserved.
But this approach hasn’t been particularly successful, as the story of one giraffe species shows.
Giraffa camelopardalis has traditionally been partitioned into 11 subspecies. New research suggests it actually comprises only four morpho-genetic “entities” within it that warrant conservation action.
All four should be elevated to full species status. Why? To greatly simplify the strategy that’s needed for effective giraffe conservation.
A similar approach could help in developing meaningful conservation plans for many other species.
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Helmeted guineafowl
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmeted_guineafowl
Taxonomy
The likely extinct subspecies N. m. sabyi of Morocco
In the early days of the European colonisation of North America, the native wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) was confused with this species. The word meleagris, Greek for guineafowl, is also shared in the scientific names of the two species, though for the guineafowl it is the species name, whereas for the turkey, it is the name of the genus and (in inflected form) the family.
Subspecies
There are nine recognised subspecies:
N. m. coronata (Gurney, 1868) – Gurney's helmeted guineafowl – Type locality restricted to Uitenhage. Occurs in eastern and central South Africa and Western Swaziland.
N. m. galeatus (Pallas, 1767) – West African guineafowl – western Africa to southern Chad, central Zaire, and northern Angola
N. m. marungensis (Schalow, 1884) – Marungu helmeted guineafowl – south Congo Basin to western Angola and Zambia
N. m. meleagris (Linnaeus, 1758) – Saharan helmeted guineafowl – eastern Chad to Ethiopia, northern Zaire, Uganda and northern Kenya
N. m. mitrata (Pallas, 1764) – tufted guineafowl – Terra Typica "Madagascar" (introduced or erroneous). Occurs in Tanzania to Zambia, Botswana, northern South Africa, Eastern Swaziland and Mozambique.
N. m. damarensis (Roberts, 1917) – Damara helmeted guineafowl – Terra Typica: Windhoek. Occurs from arid southern Angola to northern Namibia and Botswana north of 26°S[3]
N. m. reichenowi (Ogilvie-Grant, 1894) – Reichenow's helmeted guineafowl – Kenya and central Tanzania
N. m. sabyi (Hartert, 1919) – Saby's helmeted guineafowl – northwestern Morocco
N. m. somaliensis (Neumann, 1899) – Somali tufted guineafowl – northeastern Ethiopia and Somalia
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Mitochondrial phylogenetics of the goshawk Accipiter [gentilis] superspecies
April 2019
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jzs.12285
INTRODUCTION
Birds are among the best‐studied groups of animals, and our knowledge on their diversity, taxonomy, and phylogenetic relationships has steadily been growing. Although the Biological Species Concept as advertised by Ernst Mayr has not been universally applied in avian taxonomy (Sangster, 2014), its emphasis on polytypic species has probably contributed to the large number of described bird subspecies. To also appreciate the existence of very closely related groups of species, the superspecies concept was introduced. Ultimately going back to German terminology by Kleinschmidt and Rensch from the early 20th century, it was Mayr (1931) who introduced the term superspecies, translated from Rensch's Artenkreis, or circle of species, for a group of closely related species (Mallet, 2001). The component taxa of a superspecies were called semispecies by Mayr by which he meant “good,” but very similar species. In accordance with its linguistic connotation (semi‐meaning half), Amadon (1966), like Mayr (1931) specifically in an ornithological context, suggested to use the term semispecies for borderline cases between subspecies and full species and to refer to the “good” species within superspecies as allospecies. This terminology has been implemented, in a modified way, in the taxonomic guidelines of the British Ornithologists’ Union (BOU; Helbig, Knox, Parkin, Sangster, & Collinson, 2002). Superspecies here are monophyletic groups of allo‐ and semispecies that are less differentiated from one another than closely related species usually are. Allospecies are allopatric, while semispecies are connected by a stable hybrid zone. The BOU has also adopted Amadon's (1966) nomenclature according to which the superspecies’ [middle] names are denoted with square brackets. The BOU explicitly implemented the superspecies concept within the framework of species as lineages, as Helbig et al. (2002) mention the Evolutionary and the General Lineage Species Concepts, and it is meant to be applied to cases where the independence of lineages (“good” species) cannot be judged with confidence. In other words, it is an addition to our taxonomic arsenal to acknowledge the different levels of independence among phylogenetic lineages at and around the species level.
Figure 1
Geographical distribution of the Accipiter [gentilis] superspecies. Subspecies of A. gentilis according to del Hoyo and Collar (2014) as well as A. melanoleucus, A. henstii, and A. meyerianus are indicated by coloration. Additionally, formerly recognized A. g. caucasicus and A. g. khamensis are included. Filled areas represent all‐year‐round occurrence; hatched areas indicate temporary winter migration. Illustrations of A. gentilis apache, A. melanoleucus, and A. meyerianus are by David Mead; the copyright is held by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, taken from Ferguson‐Lees and Christie (2001) Raptors of the World, London: Christopher Helm and A & C Black Ltd. Illustration of A. henstii is reproduced by permission of Lynx Edicions. Illustration of A. gentilis atricapillus is by Louis Agassiz Fuertes (under public domain)
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Evolutionary diversification of the limb skeleton in crested newts (Triturus cristatus superspecies, Caudata, Salamandridae)
2008
http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anz45-free/anz45-527.pdf
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Evolutionary and paleogeographical effects on the distribution of the Triturus cristatus superspecies in the central Balkans
1997
https://brill.com/view/journals/amre/18/4/article-p321_1.xml?language=en
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Unraveling the rapid radiation of crested newts (Triturus cristatus superspecies) using complete mitogenomic sequences
14 June 2011
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-11-162
Abstract
Background
The rapid radiation of crested newts (Triturus cristatus superspecies) comprises four morphotypes: 1) the T. karelinii group, 2) T. carnifex - T. macedonicus, 3) T. cristatus and 4) T. dobrogicus. These vary in body build and the number of rib-bearing pre-sacral vertebrae (NRBV). The phylogenetic relationships of the morphotypes have not yet been settled, despite several previous attempts, employing a variety of molecular markers. We here resolve the crested newt phylogeny by using complete mitochondrial genome sequences.
Conclusions
We argue that the Bayesian full mitochondrial DNA phylogeny is superior to previous attempts aiming to recover the crested newt species tree. Furthermore, our new phylogeny involves a maximally parsimonious interpretation of NRBV evolution. Calibrating the phylogeny allows us to evaluate potential drivers for crested newt cladogenesis. The split between the T. karelinii group and the three other morphotypes, at ca. 10.4 Ma, is associated with the separation of the Balkan and Anatolian landmasses (12-9 Ma). No currently known vicariant events can be ascribed to the other two splits, first at ca. 9.3 Ma, separating T. carnifex - T. macedonicus, and second at ca. 8.8 Ma, splitting T. cristatus and T. dobrogicus. The crested newt morphotypes differ in the duration of their annual aquatic period. We speculate on the role that this ecological differentiation could have played during speciation.
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{White people are a superspecies, blacks would be considered a subspecies. Blacks would be defined as a subspecies because they have unknown DNA lineage in their blood. Look at how Whites have more genetic variation, while many blacks and Orientals have very bland features}.
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Who were the ghost people of Africa? DNA reveals ancient Africans bred with new unknown race of humans just 50,000 years ago
13 February 2020
The researchers studied the genetic material of 405 people from West Africa
They discovered mystery genetic material, which they have termed 'ghost DNA'
It suggests that humans mixed with an unknown group about 50,000 years ago
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7997861/New-study-shows-ghost-DNA-modern-day-population-west-Africa.html
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The 'Ghosts' of 2 Unknown Extinct Human Species Have Been Found in Modern DNA
17 JULY 2019
https://www.sciencealert.com/two-unknown-species-of-ancient-extinct-hominids-have-been-identified-in-modern-dna
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Aboriginal Australians, Pacific Islanders carry DNA of unknown human species, research analysis suggests
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Subspecies, Semispecies, Superspecies
December 2007
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239560887_Subspecies_Semispecies_Superspecies
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The Neotropical Drosophila paulistorum Species Complex, a Classic Case of Speciation in statu nascendi
December 2, 2010
Abstract
The neotropical Drosophila paulistorum superspecies, consisting of at least six geographically overlapping but reproductively isolated semispecies, has been the object of extensive research since at least 1955, when it was initially trapped mid-evolution in flagrant statu nascendi. In this classic system females express strong premating isolation patterns against mates belonging to any other semispecies, and yet uncharacterized microbial reproductive tract symbionts were described triggering hybrid inviability and male sterility. Based on theoretical models and limited experimental data, prime candidates fostering symbiont-driven speciation in arthropods are intracellular bacteria belonging to the genus Wolbachia. They are maternally inherited symbionts of many arthropods capable of manipulating host reproductive biology for their own benefits. However, it is an ongoing debate as to whether or not reproductive symbionts are capable of driving host speciation in nature and if so, to what extent. Here we have reevaluated this classic case of infectious speciation by means of present day molecular approaches and artificial symbiont depletion experiments. We have isolated the α-proteobacteria Wolbachia as the maternally transmitted core endosymbionts of all D. paulistorum semispecies that have coevolved towards obligate mutualism with their respective native hosts. In hybrids, however, these mutualists transform into pathogens by overreplication causing embryonic inviability and male sterility. We show that experimental reduction in native Wolbachia titer causes alterations in sex ratio, fecundity, and mate discrimination. Our results indicate that formerly designated Mycoplasma-like organisms are most likely Wolbachia that have evolved by becoming essential mutualistic symbionts in their respective natural hosts; they have the potential to trigger pre- and postmating isolation. Furthermore, in light of our new findings, we revisit the concept of infectious speciation and discuss potential mechanisms that can restrict or promote symbiont-induced speciation at post- and prezygotic levels in nature and under artificial laboratory conditions.
The first case in literature suggesting that microbial reproductive parasites can play a pivotal role in driving host-speciation dates back to the late 1960s when Ehrman and coworkers discovered endosymbionts that trigger incipient speciation via hybrid inviability and male sterility in a neotropical Drosophila group species. The D. paulistorum species complex comprises at least six semispecies showing pronounced sexual isolation; matings between these semispecies succeed significantly less frequently than do those within a semispecies. These are: Amazonian (AM), Andean-Brazilian (AB), Centroamerican (CA), Interior (IN), Orinocan (OR), and Transitional (TR) semispecies. The primary extrinsic mechanism differentiating the D. paulistorum semispecies is geographic isolation, albeit incompletely because of consistently overlapping distributions. Three intrinsic isolation mechanisms are operative here - sexual isolation via behavior and hybrid male sterility both in reciprocal crosses. In addition to hybrid male sterility, abnormal pole cell development in early F1 hybrid embryos cause considerable high hybrid inviability; depicted in Figure 1. Since mortality takes place during early stages of embryogenesis, and occurs at high frequencies in all hybrids derived from reciprocal matings between the six D. paulistorum semispecies, this phenotype can be best described as bidirectional cytoplasmic incompatibility, initially described by Laven in the Culex pipiens species complex
Figure 1. Schematic presentation of incipient speciation among D. paulistorum semispecies.
https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1001214
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The difference between a species and a subspecies – according to science
July 25, 2019
https://www.zmescience.com/other/feature-post/difference-species-subspecies/
(Hartebeest subspecies: Bubal hartebeest (center); (clockwise from top-left corner) red hartebeest, Lelwel hartebeest, Swayne’s hartebeest, western hartebeest, Neumann’s hartebeest, Lichtenstein’s hartebeest, Coke’s hartebeest and Tora hartebeest, from Great and Small Game of Africa).
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On the evolution of subspecies, as demonstrated by the alternation of variability existing in the subspecies of the genus Erebia (Lepidoptera)
04 May 2011
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/40/271/305/2680114?redirectedFrom=PDF
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Taxonomic assessment of two pygopodoid gecko subspecies from Western Australia
08 Jan 2020
https://brill.com/view/journals/ijee/aop/article-10.1163-22244662-20191078/article-10.1163-22244662-20191078.xml?language=en
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Discovering a ring species
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/_0_0/devitt_02
Ensatina's basic story was laid out by Robert Stebbins 30 years before Tom was born in 1977. Based on the ring-like distribution of the different forms, Robert had proposed that the species started off in Northern California and Oregon and then spread south along both sides of the Central Valley, which was too dry and hot for salamanders.
According to Robert's hypothesis, as the pioneering populations moved south, they evolved into several subspecies with new color patterns and adaptations for living in different environments. By the time they met again in Southern California as the subspecies eschscholtzii and klauberi, he argued, they had each evolved so much that they no longer interbred — even though the subspecies blended into one another around the rest of the ring. Since species are often defined by their inability to interbreed with other species, Ensatina seemed to represent the whole process of speciation — all the gradual changes that accumulate in two lineages and that wind up making them incompatible with one another.
Of course, since this all would have happened millions of years ago, Robert wasn't around to observe any of it. He based his ideas on the morphology, or body form, of the subspecies — in this case, their color patterns. First, neighboring subspecies were more similar to one another than to those across the ring and seemed to blend into one another. From this, he hypothesized that Ensatina represented a ring species. Robert also noticed that the northern coastal form, called picta, had a pattern of colors that seemed to encompass the other subspecies. It was easy to imagine how the more specialized southern forms could have evolved from picta. Based on this, Robert hypothesized that the two southward-moving Ensatina lineages had both emerged from picta's immediate ancestors.
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Ancestry of An Isolated Subspecies of Salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi Lowe: the Evolutionary Significance of Hybridization
1995
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790385710196
Abstract
Most phylogenetic systematists assume speciation results in dichotomously branching phylogenies. Hybridization that gives rise to a new Lineage can produce character homoplasy that might obscure a species′ true history. We report the results of a restriction-enzyme analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in three tiger salamander subspecies (Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium, Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum, and Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi) and compare the results to studies of morphological and allozymic variation in these taxa. Allozymically, A. t. mavortium and A. t. nebulosum share most of their genomes (although each has several unique alleles), yet color pattern and mtDNA haplotypes are distinct. Color pattern and allozyme data suggest that A. t. stebbinsi shares a common ancestor with A. t. mavortium, while the A. t. stebbinsi mtDNA haplotype is derived from an A. t. nebulosum haplotype. Thus, our data suggest that A. t. stebbinsi originated through hybridization between A. t. mavortium and A. t. nebulosum. That hybridization can produce recognizably distinct evolutionary entities has long been recognized for plants, but the evolutionary significance of hybridization in animals should be examined more closely. Conservation agencies must recognize that hybrids and hybrid tars are not necessarily evolutionary "mistakes," and they might have significant importance in the production of natural biodiversity.
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Ebolavirus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebolavirus
Genus organization and common names
The genus Ebolavirus has been organized into five species; however, the nomenclature has proven somewhat controversial, with many authors continuing to use common names rather than species names when referring to these viruses. In particular, the generic term "Ebola virus" is widely used to refer specifically to members of the species Zaire ebolavirus. Consequently, in 2010, a group of researchers recommended that the name "Ebola virus" be adopted for a subclassification[note 1] within the species Zaire ebolavirus and that similar common names be formally adopted for other Ebolavirus species. In 2011, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) rejected a proposal (2010.010bV) to formally recognize these names, as they do not designate names for subtypes, variants, strains, or other subspecies level groupings.[30] As such, the widely used common names are not formally recognized as part of the taxonomic nomenclature. In particular, "Ebola virus" does not have an official meaning recognized by ICTV, and rather they continue to use and recommend only the species designation Zaire ebolavirus.
The threshold for putting isolates into different species is usually a difference of more than 30% at the nucleotide level, compared to the type strain. If a virus is in a given species but differs from the type strain by more than 10% at the nucleotide level, it is proposed that it be named as a new virus. As of 2019, none of the Ebolavirus species contain members divergent enough to receive more than one "virus" designation.
| Species name (Abbreviation) |
Virus common name (Abbreviation) |
|---|---|
| Bombali ebolavirus | Bombali virus (BOMV) |
| Bundibugyo ebolavirus (BEBOV) | Bundibugyo virus(BDBV) |
| Reston ebolavirus (REBOV) | Reston virus (RESTV) |
| Sudan ebolavirus (SEBOV) | Sudan virus (SUDV) |
| TaĂŻ Forest ebolavirus (TEBOV; previously CIEBOV) | TaĂŻ Forest virus (TAFV) |
| Zaire ebolavirus (ZEBOV) | Ebola virus (EBOV) |
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Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) from Sun-Tailed Monkeys (Cercopithecus solatus): Evidence for Host-Dependent Evolution of SIV within the C. lhoesti Superspecies
1999
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC104300/
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Non-Human Primates, Retroviruses, and Zoonotic Infection Risks in the Human Population
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/non-human-primates-retroviruses-and-zoonotic-infection-59119998/
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A Cophylogenetic Perspective of RNA–Virus Evolution
January 2004
https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/21/1/45/1114580
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Can Viruses Make Us Human?
http://www.somosbacteriasyvirus.com/canviruses.pdf
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Shedding subspecies: The influence of genetics on reptile subspecies taxonomy
2013
http://people.cst.cmich.edu/swans1bj/torstrom%20et%20al%202014.pdf
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Explaining the Divergence of the Marine Iguana Subspecies on Espa
https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/young-naturalist-awards/winning-essays/2004/explaining-the-divergence-of-the-marine-iguana-subspecies-on-espa
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The incredible shrinking sea lizards
31 March 2017
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/c0a61ac9-0f43-4e8e-95e6-d211543e7191
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List of Marine Mammal Species and Subspecies
https://marinemammalscience.org/species-information/list-marine-mammal-species-subspecies/
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Body Size, Performance and Fitness in Galapagos Marine Iguanas
01 July 2003
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/43/3/376/623034
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How sea level influenced evolution in the Galapagos
2014
Recent shifts in sea level, particularly the lows, may have had a major influence on evolution in the Galapagos, according to new research.
https://www.theguardian.com/science/animal-magic/2014/apr/24/sea-level-evolution-galapagos
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Iguana-sized dinosaur cousin discovered in Antarctica
January 31, 2019
https://www.burkemuseum.org/news/iguana-sized-dinosaur-cousin-discovered-antarctica
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Photographer documents the plight of the Galapagos Islands' iguanas as scientists warn climate change and severe El Nino events are destroying their food source
2 April 2019
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6876747/Shocking-images-reveal-rotting-lizards-Galapagos-El-Nino-destroys-food-supply.html
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Bite force and cranial bone strain in four species of lizards
2018
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/jexbio/221/23/jeb180240.full.pdf?with-ds=yes
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The Secrets of the Galapagos Marine Iguanas
October 25, 2016
https://www.lapintagalapagoscruise.com/galapagos-marine-iguanas/
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The Evolution of Marine Reptiles
19 May 2009
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0139-y
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Iguana
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iguana
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The skull bones of the Iguana iguana
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291392301_The_skull_bones_of_the_Iguana_iguana
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Skull Development, Ossification Pattern, and Adult Shape in the Emerging Lizard Model Organism Pogona vitticeps: A Comparative Analysis With Other Squamates
2018
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5882870/
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The pink Galapagos iguana that Darwin never saw
January 5, 2009
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/the-pink-galapagos-iguana-that-darwin-never-saw
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Feeding Strategies in Marine Snakes: An Analysis of Evolutionary, Morphological, Behavioral and Ecological Relationships
1983
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/23/2/411/302332
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What our ancestors’ third eye reveals about the evolution of mammals to warm blood
November 13, 2016
https://theconversation.com/what-our-ancestors-third-eye-reveals-about-the-evolution-of-mammals-to-warm-blood-68454
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Genetic Analysis Shows Tuatara Is The Strangest Animal on Earth
Aug 22, 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWywZyzmBDE
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Giant Four-eyed Lizard May Change Paradigm of Evolution
Apr 04, 2018
Four-foot
monitor which lived 49 million years ago in Wyoming indicates that the
third eye in lizards evolved independently from everyone else's third
eye, which had not been expected
(Dorsal view of the head of an anole (Anolis carolinensis lizard) clearly showing the third eye - marked by a green frame).
https://www.haaretz.com/science-and-health/MAGAZINE-giant-four-eyed-lizard-may-change-paradigm-of-evolution-1.5976440
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This sea snake gathers oxygen through its forehead
05 September 2019
https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/this-sea-snake-gathers-oxygen-through-its-forehead
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The Deadliest Sea Snake is actually two look-alike species
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/the-deadliest-sea-snake-is-actually-two-look-alike-species
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Heterochronic Shifts Mediate Ecomorphological Convergence in Skull Shape of Microcephalic Sea Snakes.
2019
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31065670
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Did snakes evolve from ancient sea serpents?
June 17, 2016
https://phys.org/news/2016-06-snakes-evolve-ancient-sea-serpents.html
One of the enduring controversies in evolution is why snakes evolved their long, limbless bodies.
The prevailing theory is that they evolved from lizards and are really just an extreme type of legless lizard. And as many long-bodied lizards are burrowers, there is a widespread view that snakes developed their serpentine bodies underground.
But a study of a primordial four-legged fossil snake published this week suggests it was aquatic. This suggests snakes lost their legs and elongated their bodies underwater, for eel-like swimming, before crawling ashore aeons later.
The fossil in question is one of the most exquisite and controversial fossils of modern times. Dubbed Tetrapodophis (meaning "four-legged snake"), it lived alongside the dinosaurs in what is now Brazil, about 120 million years ago.
Amazingly, almost every single bone is preserved in this tiny worm-sized fossil, including four small but perfectly-formed legs.
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This is how the ancestor of modern snakes could have looked
3 July 2019
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2019/july/this-is-how-the-ancestor-of-modern-snakes-could-have-looked.html
Researchers have reconstructed the ancestral snake head.
It is part of a larger project to create 3D reconstructions of how the skull evolved.
Snakes and lizards (squamates) are part of a diverse group that includes burrowing snakes, gliding lizards and climbing chameleons. The animals in this group live all over the world in a huge variety of habitats, which means they all have very different skull shapes.
Comparing all their skull shapes wasn't an easy task - there are few points of obvious comparison - but a team of researchers have succeeded. Scientists from the UK, USA, Germany and France used cutting-edge imaging techniques and hundreds of specimens from both extinct and living species.
Prof Anjali Goswami, research leader at the Museum, explains, 'We capture lots of surface landmarks across the bones to get a better 3D picture of the animal's skull.
'CT scanning and laser scanning in the Museum's Imaging and Analysis Centre are making this possible. The Museum is one of the best places in the world for these types of facilities, and it is shaping how science can be done differently.
'Once we have this nice dataset with 1,000 or more data points across the skull, we use various methods and computer programmes to examine how skull shape has changed through time.'
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Beautifully Preserved Skull of 'Biblical Snake' with Hind Legs Discovered
November 20, 2019
https://www.livescience.com/snake-with-legs-skull.html
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A New Snake Skull from the Paleocene of Bolivia Sheds Light on the Evolution of Macrostomatans
March 1, 2013
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057583
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The Evolution of the Tongue of Snakes, and its Bearing on Snake Origins
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_8
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Scientists reconstruct genome of common ancestor of crocodiles, birds, dinosaurs
Crocodiles found to have one of the most slowly evolving genomes, whereas the pace of genetic change has been much faster in birds
December 11, 2014
https://news.ucsc.edu/2014/12/crocodile-genomes.html
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At the feet of the dinosaurs: the early history and radiation of lizards
2002
http://aerg.canberra.edu.au/library/sex_general/2003_Evans_Review_squamate_evolution.pdf
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How Titanoboa, the 40-Foot-Long Snake, Was Found
April 2012
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-titanoboa-the-40-foot-long-snake-was-found-115791429/
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Ancient Komodo Dragon Has Space-age Skull
April 14, 2008
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080414091357.htm
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Cranial performance in the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) as revealed by high-resolution 3-D finite element analysis
2008
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2423397/
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Researchers Discover the Surprising Reason Why Komodo Dragons Have Such Elaborate Armor
September 12, 2019
(Bony plates called osteoderms (colored orange) cover the skull of an
adult Komodo dragon)
(Komodo dragon osteoderms. The insets show the four basic osteoderm
shapes found on the adult specimen. From top to bottom: rosette; platy;
dendritic; and vermiform).
(3-D reconstructions of different reptile skulls and their osteoderms.
The left column shows a side view and the right column a view from the
top. The reptiles are as follows: A: Komodo dragon. B: Earless monitor
lizard. C: Gila monster. D: Asian water monitor. Scale bar is one
centimeter).
https://scitechdaily.com/researchers-discover-the-surprising-reason-why-komodo-dragons-have-such-elaborate-armor/
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bones in different races
https://depts.washington.edu/bonebio/bonAbout/race.html
---------------------
Skull thickness of Black and White races.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1224277
------------------------
Thickness of the normal skull in the American Blacks and Whites.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1155589
Abstract
Normal
skull thickness has been measured in a general hospital population of
300 blacks and 200 whites in America. In both groups, there is a rapid
increase in skull thickness during the first two decades of life,
followed by a small uniform increase reaching a peak in the fifth and
sixth decades. The sex differences are variable, but in certain age
groups the females in both races have significatly thicker parietal and
occipital bones than their male counterpart. The frontal bone is thicker
in the white male than in the black, and the parietooccipital thicker
in the blacks than in the whites. Some suggestions are offered to
explain the sex and racial difference noted.
----------------------------
Sex, Race, Brains, and Calipers
1993
https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/sex-race-brains-and-calipers
-----------------------------
Physical Anthropology of the Jews. I.-The Cephalic Index
https://www.jstor.org/stable/659377?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
---------------------------
Ashkenazi Jewish Genetic Panel (AJGP)
What Are Ashkenazi Jewish Genetic Diseases?
Ashkenazi
Jewish genetic diseases are a group of rare disorders that occur more
often in people of Eastern European (Ashkenazi) Jewish heritage than in
the general population. Even though most of these diseases are severe
and can cause early death, some can be treated to reduce symptoms and
prolong life. Some of these diseases can be found during pregnancy
through chorionic villus sampling (CVS) or amniocentesis. This testing
is done usually if one or both parents are carriers of a genetic
disease.
Diseases in this group include:
Bloom syndrome. Babies with this disease are born small and remain
shorter than normal as they grow. Their skin may look red, and they have
more lung and ear infections than children normally have.
Canavan disease. This disease gradually destroys brain tissue.
Cystic fibrosis. This disease causes very thick mucus in the lungs and problems with digesting food.
Familial dysautonomia (FD). People with this problem cannot feel pain,
they sweat a lot, and they have trouble with speech and coordination.
Fanconi anemia. People with this problem do not have enough blood cells
and have problems with the heart, kidneys, arms, or legs. They also are
more likely to get cancer.
Gaucher disease. This disease
causes a type of fat called glucocerebroside to build up in certain
cells of the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
Mucolipidosis IV. This problem causes the nervous system to deteriorate, or break down, over time.
Niemann-Pick disease (type A). This disease causes a type of fat called
sphingomyelin to build up in cells of the liver, spleen, lymph nodes,
and bone marrow.
Tay-Sachs disease. This disease causes a type
of fat called ganglioside to build up in the cells of the brain and
nervous system.
Torsion dystonia. People with this problem
have ongoing spasms that twist the muscles in their arms, legs, and
sometimes their body. Testing for this condition may not always be done.
About
1 out of 4 people of Ashkenazi Jewish heritage is a carrier of one of
these genetic conditions, most commonly of Gaucher disease, cystic
fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, familial dysautonomia, or Canavan
disease.
Pregnancy: Should I Have Amniocentesis?
Pregnancy: Should I Have Chorionic Villus Sampling?
https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/tv7879
---------------------------
Jewish Genetic Diseases
https://www.jewishgeneticdiseases.org/jewish-genetic-diseases/
JGDC
provides information about diseases that are commonly found in the
Jewish (Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Mizrahi) population and would be
important to be included in a carrier screening panel. Please keep in
mind that the availability of testing for these diseases might differ
between labs and it is important to discuss your options with a genetics
professional before being tested.
Most expanded
carrier screening panels will include the diseases listed below as well
as many other diseases common to individuals of all ethnicities. Many
medical and genetics profesionals are currently supporting expanded
carrier screening for all individuals of child bearing age, in lieu of
ethnic specific testing.
Diseases Common to all Jewish Groups
Cystic Fibrosis
Familial Mediterranean Fever
Fragile X Syndrome
Glycogen Storage Disease Type II
Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Deficiency
Retinitis Pigmentosa 28
Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome
Spinal Muscular Atrophy
Tay-Sachs Disease
Wilson Disease
Ashkenazi Jewish Diseases
3-Phosphoglycerate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
Abetalipoproteinemia
Alport Syndrome
Arthrogryposis, Mental Retardation and Seizures
Bardet-Biedl Syndrome
Bloom Syndrome
Canavan Disease
Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase ll Deficiency
Choreoacanthocytosis
Congenital Amegakaryocytic Thrombocytopenia
Congenital Disorder of Glycosylation la
Cystic Fibrosis
Deafness-Autosomal Recessive 77
Dyskeratosis Congenita, Autosomal Recessive
Ehlers-Danlos VllC
Enhanced S-Cone Syndrome
Factor XI Deficiency
Familial Dysautonomia
Familial Hypercholesterolemia
Familial Hyperinsulinism
Familial Mediterranean Fever
Fanconi Anemia-Group C
Fragile X Syndrome
Galactosemia
Gaucher Disease
Glycogen Storage Disease 1A
Glycogen Storage Disease Type II
Glycogen Storage Disease Type IV / Adult Polyglucosan Body Disease
Glycogen Storage Disease Type VII
Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome 3
Joubert Syndrome 2
Lipoamide Dehydrogenase Deficiency
Maple Syrup Urine Disease 1B
Mitochondrial Complex 1 Deficiency
Mucolipidosis IV (ML4)
Multiple Sulphatase Deficiency
Nemaline Myopathy 2
Niemann-Pick Disease Type A/B
Nonsyndromic Hearing Loss
Osteopetrosis 1
Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Deficiency
Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Recessive
Pontocerebellar Hypoplasia Type 1A
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia DNAH5
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia DNAI1
Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia DNAI2
Primary Hyperoxaluria Type 3
Retinitis Pigmentosa 28
Retinitis Pigmentosa 59
Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome
Spinal Muscular Atrophy
Tay-Sachs Disease
Tyrosinemia-Type 1
Usher Syndrome-Type IF
Usher Syndrome-Type III
Walker Warburg Syndrome and Other FKTN-Related Dystrophies
Wilson Disease
Zellweger Syndrome Spectrum-PEX2
Sephardi-Mizrahi Jewish Diseases
3-Methylglutaconic Aciduria, Type III / Optic Atrophy 3, with Cataract
Acute Infantile Liver Failure
Adrenoleukodystrophy-X-Linked ABCD1
Asparagine Synthetase Deficiency
Ataxia Telangiectasia
Beta-Globin-Related Hemoglobinopathies
Cerebrotendinous Xanthomatosis
Chronic Granulomatous Disease
Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis
Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome
Corticosterone Methyloxidase Deficiency
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystinosis
Familial Mediterranean Fever
Fanconi Anemia-Group A
Fragile X Syndrome
Glycogen Storage Disease Type II
Glycogen Storage Disease Type III
Glycogen Storage Disease Type V
Hereditary Spastic Paraparesis 49
Homocystinuria due to MTHFR Deficiency
Inclusion Body Myopathy 2
Infantile Cerebral and Cerebellar Atrophy
Leber Congenital Amaurosis 2-Retinitis Pigmentosa 20
Limb Girdle Muscular Dystrophy Type 2B
Megalencephalic Leukoencephalopathy with Subcortical Cysts
Metachromatic Leukodystrophy
Microphthalmia / Anophthalmia
Mitochondrial Complex 1 Deficiency
Mitochondrial Myopathy and Sideroblastic Anemia
Myoneurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy
Omenn Syndrome
Ornithine Aminotransferase Deficiency
Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Deficiency
Polyglandular Autoimmune Syndrome, Type I
Pontocerebellar Hypoplasia Type 6
Progressive Cerebello-Cerebral Atrophy
Renal Tubular Acidosis and Deafness
Retinitis Pigmentosa 25
Retinitis Pigmentosa 26
Retinitis Pigmentosa 28
Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome
Spinal Muscular Atrophy
Tay-Sachs Disease
Usher Syndrome-Type IIA
Wilson Disease
Wolman Disease / Cholesteryl Ester Storage Disease
Zellweger Syndrome Spectrum
----------------------------------------------------------------
Medical genetics of Jews
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_genetics_of_Jews
Genetic disorders common in Ashkenazi Jews Disease Mode of inheritance Gene Carrier frequency
Favism X-linked G6PD
Bloom syndrome Autosomal recessive BLM 1/100
Breast cancer and ovarian cancer Autosomal dominant BRCA1 or BRCA2 1/100 and 1/75, respectively
Canavan disease Autosomal recessive ASPA 1/60
Congenital deafness Autosomal recessive GJB2 or GJB6 1/25
Cystic fibrosis Autosomal recessive CFTR 1/25
Haemophilia C Autosomal recessive F11 1/12
Familial dysautonomia Autosomal recessive IKBKAP 1/30
Familial hypercholesterolemia Autosomal dominant LDLR 1/69
Familial hyperinsulinism Autosomal recessive ABCC8 1/125–1/160
Fanconi anemia C Autosomal recessive FACC 1/100
Gaucher disease Autosomal recessive GBA 1/7–1/18
Glycogen Storage Disease type 1a Autosomal recessive G6PC 1/71
Mucolipidosis IV Autosomal recessive MCOLN1 1/110
Niemann–Pick (type A) Autosomal recessive SMPD1 1/90
Nonclassical 21 OHase deficiency Autosomal recessive CPY21 1/6
Parkinson's disease Autosomal dominant LRRK2 1/42[18]
Tay–Sachs Autosomal recessive HEXA 1/25–1/30
Torsion dystonia Autosomal dominant DYT1 1/4000
Usher syndrome Autosomal recessive PCDH15 1/72
------------------------------------------------------------------
Are the Jews a Race?
https://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1914/jewsrace/ch05.htm
------------------------------------------------
‘Not a race but only a people after all’: the racial origins of the Jews in fin-de-siĂšcle anthropology
Apr 2008
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00313220801996063?scroll=top&needAccess=true&
------------------------------------------------------------------
CRANIOMETRY:
http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4729-craniometry
The
methods of measuring skulls for the purpose of determining certain
topographical relations, the most important measurement of the skull
being the cranial index, or the cephalic index in case the measurements
are taken on the living. This consists in the ratio of the width of the
head above the ears to the length of the head from the forehead to the
most distant point at the back of the head. The cephalic index is
expressed by multiplying the width of the head by 100 and dividing the
product by the length. Thus, supposing a head to be 153 mm. wide and 186
mm. long, then 153 × 100/186 = 82.26, the cephalic index. The broader
or rounder a head is, the higher is its cephalic index, and vice versa.
When the cephalic index is above 80 anthropologists term it
"brachycephalic"; between 75 and 80, "mesocephalic"; and less than 75,
"dolichocephalic."
There have been but few measurements
of Jewish skulls, most of the measurements of Jews having been taken on
the living. The following is a list of the measurements of 100 Jewish
skulls taken by various anthropologists:
As is the
universal rule, the circumference of the head of the male is greater
than that of the female by about 2.5 cm. (1 inch). Another point worth
noting is that (wherever data are obtainable) the circumference of the
head among the Jews is, as a rule, greater than that among the races
with whom they dwell.
The most important problem
suggested by a study of craniometrical results concerning Jews is the
relation of the type head of the modern Jews to that of the ancient
Hebrews and to the modern Semitic skulls. The pure Semitic skull is
dolichocephalic, as may be seen from a study of the heads of modern
Arabs, Abyssinians, Syrians, etc. The cephalic index of these races is
from 73 to 77. As is at present accepted by nearly all anthropologists,
the shape of the head is the most stable characteristic of a given race.
It is little if at all influenced by climate, environment, nutrition,
or sexual and social selection. The only way the type of the head may
change is by intermixture with other races. If the ancient Hebrews were
of the same stock as the modern non-Jewish Semites, and if the modern
Jews are their descendants, then a pure dolichocephalic type of head
would be expected among the Jews. As has been seen, all the results of
craniometry prove that the Jews are brachycephalic, and that the
dolichocephalic form is only found among them in less than two per cent
of cases.
Ancient Jewish Skulls.
This
can be explained in two ways: either the modern Jews have very little
Semitic blood in their veins, as Lombroso, Luschan, and others are
inclined to think, or the ancient Hebrews may have been a brachycephalic
race. In order to establish this, an examination is necessary of more
skulls of ancient Hebrews, which are not available at present. The only
skulls of ancient Hebrews recorded are five obtained by Lombroso from
the catacomb of St. Calixtus in Rome, dating back to 150 C.E. Lombroso
aptly remarks that these skulls are of great importance, because at the
period from which they are derived (second century), there could not
have been any considerable racial intermixture of the Jews with other
peoples, and the cranial typethey represent should be considered pure.
The cranial indexes of these skulls are 80, 76.1, 78, 83.4, and 75.1,
giving an average cephalic index for the living of 80.5, which is far
above the cephalic index of the non-Jewish Semites.
Of
course, no positive conclusion can be drawn from only five skulls;
still, the fact that among these are found two brachycephalic and only
one dolichocephalic, points strongly against the opinion that the
ancient Hebrews were a purely dolichocephalic race.
The
twelve skulls from a Jewish cemetery in Basel, of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries, which have been examined by Kollmann, are even
more brachycephalic than those of contemporary Jews. The average cranial
index of these skulls is 84.66; i.e., a cephalic index of 86.66. This
again shows that the brachycephalism of the modern Jews is not of recent
origin.
It can therefore be stated that the modern
European Jews are shown by craniometrical evidence to be a pure type,
and that no evidence of appreciable racial intermixture is discoverable.
The opinion that the Sephardim are dolichocephalic, while the
Ashkenazim are brachycephalic, is not supported by craniometrical
research on European Jews. The measurements by Jacobs, Lombroso, Livi,
and GlĂŒck prove that the Sephardim are almost as brachycephalic as are
the Ashkenazim, as can be seen from the accompanying table. Jacobs'
measurements of the Jews in London show that the percentage of
dolichocephalic is even larger among the Ashkenazim, being 28.3 per
cent, as against only 17 per cent among Sephardim.
---------------------------------------
Sex and Race Determination From The Base Of The Skull
https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5582&context=utk_gradthes
-----------------------------------------
Forensics 101: Race Determination Based on the Skull
July 10, 2012
https://jenjdanna.com/blog/2012/7/10/forensics-101-race-determination-based-on-the-skull.html
Mouth:
Whites tends to have smaller teeth, often with significant crowding and
impacted third molars, and frequently exhibiting an overbite. Blacks
rarely have crowding and the upper teeth often project outwards due to
the angled shape of the maxilla. American Indians have well spaced teeth
but often exhibit sclerosed dentition—when calcium deposits build up
inside the tooth, thinning the root canal—leaving teeth loose within the
mandible and easily cracked.
The palate and palatine
suture: The hard palate is the bony structure at the top of the mouth
bordered by the upper teeth. In American Indians, the palate is
elliptical, with the ‘U’ shape angling in at the back teeth. In blacks,
the palate is hyperbolic—a perfect ‘U’ shape with straight lines. And in
whites, the palate is parabolic with the ends of the ‘U’ flaring
outwards. The transverse palatine suture that horizontally transects the
palate also varies by race: It is straight in American Indians, curved
in blacks, and a jagged line in whites.
Incisors: The
shape of the incisors is the most important indicator of race in the
teeth. In American Indians (and East Asians, both of Mongoloid
ancestry), the incisors are shovel-shaped, named because the inner
surface is scooped or curved. Black and whites both have blade-form
incisors where the tooth has a flat profile.
The nose:
The nose provides multiple race indicators. In whites, the nasal
aperture is long and narrow, with a high bridge and a sharp nasal sill
(the lower edge of the nasal aperture projects sharply outwards). In
blacks, the nasal aperture is short and wide with a low bridge and a
guttered or trough-like nasal sill. In American Indians, the nasal
aperture is medium-sized with both a medium bridge and nasal sill.
The
mastoid process: The shape of the mastoid process differs between the
races. In blacks, the bony projection is wide, in whites it is narrow
and pointed, and in American Indians, a secondary smaller projection
forms on the back surface of the mastoid process.
Rarely
do all of these indicators point firmly to a single race. Instead, it
is the story told by the majority of physical characteristics that
suggests the victim’s ethnic background. If in doubt, additional
post-cranial (skeletal features in the rest of the body) can help
indicate race as well.
The information gathered by a
forensic anthropologist concerning age, sex and race can lead criminal
investigators to a narrowed missing persons search and hopefully to a
definitive victim identification.
-----------------------------------------
Black History By The Bones (Debated)
http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Misc/By_the_bones.htm
------------------------------------------
Brain size, IQ, and racial-group differences: Evidence from musculoskeletal traits
https://menghublog.wordpress.com/2012/04/20/brain-size-iq-and-racial-group-differences-evidence-from-musculoskeletal-traits/
------------------------------------------
The story of human evolution in Africa is undergoing a major rewrite
2017
Did scientists discover the oldest Homo sapiens remains on record? Depends on your definition of what’s human.
https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/6/7/15745714/nature-homo-sapien-remains-jebel-irhoud
------------------------------------------
Superior: The Return of Race Science—A Review
June 5, 2019
https://quillette.com/2019/06/05/superior-the-return-of-race-science-a-review/
------------------------------------------
Human Male and Female Skulls: African, Asian, and European
https://boneclones.com/product/human-male-and-female-skulls-african-asian-and-european-COMP-120-SET
------------------------------------------
An ancient skull found in Australia suggests our ancestors modified their skulls. Some people still do it today, but why?
14 October 2014
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20141013-why-we-reshape-childrens-skulls
------------------------------------------
Activity: Can You Identify Ancestry?
https://naturalhistory.si.edu/sites/default/files/media/file/wibidentifyancestryfinal.pdf
-------------------------------------------
An Updated Prehistory of the Human Pelvis
For a long time, paleoanthropologists had thought that the differences among hominins could be explained by the space requirements of the birth canal. This explanation is now undergoing some change, however, as discussed in an American Scientist column by Pat Shipman (“Why Is Human Childbirth So Painful?,” November–December 2013). Chimpanzees, with their elongated pelvis (a product of the tall wings and long ischium), have a spacious birth canal that their small-brained infants fit through without difficulty. By comparison, the shorter ischium and reoriented ilium of the human pelvis produce a smaller birth canal, which—together with the development of larger-brained infants—can make childbirth both painful and problematic.
https://www.americanscientist.org/article/an-updated-prehistory-of-the-human-pelvis
------------------------------------------
How have we changed since our species first appeared?
https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/science/human-evolution/how-have-we-changed-since-our-species-first-appeared/
------------------------------------------
{Many scientists say the reason why blacks and Orientals have more eye and nasal problems is that they have deformed skulls}.
---------------------------------
Why is it that many people from Africa have bloodshot red eyes?
https://www.reddit.com/r/NoStupidQuestions/comments/6b2292/why_is_it_that_many_people_from_africa_have/
orualofglome
32 points ·
2 years ago
Actual
African living in Africa: In addition to the first comment 2 things
that make my eyes red are exhaustion, dryness with a lot of dust and
many people use wood for cooking fuel and the smoke makes eyes rather
red.
Any other reasons I am unaware of
moogette
13 points ·
2 years ago
Some black people have yellow tinted eyes because of the heavy
concentration of melanin present in their sclera--- the white part of
the eye.
Melanin is also responsible for the color
of one's iris and one's skin tone. Palms and soles of feet lack great
amounts of melanin so the color is more uniform in all people.
Additionally, many people in Africa that live in poverty tend to have
higher than average issues with their livers, causing a build-up of old
red blood cells. This is known as cirrhosis. This most commonly occurs
with premature / malnutrition newborns as well as adults who have not
been treated properly.
-----------------------------------
People with skin of color can get rosacea
https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/rosacea/what-is/skin-color
Rosacea
is a common condition that affects the skin on the face and sometimes
the eyes. It often begins with a tendency to flush or blush easily. With
time, that warm feeling on the face tends to last longer and may
eventually become constant.
Studies show that when
people of color develop rosacea, the early signs, such as flushing, can
be missed or mistaken for another condition.
Without
treatment, rosacea can worsen. Your face may burn and sting every time
water touches it or you apply a skin care product. Some people develop
acne-like breakouts. When rosacea affects the eyes, it can cause
problems with your eyesight.
Even when it worsens, rosacea can be missed in people who have skin of color.
Signs of rosacea in skin of color
If
you have skin of color, dermatologists recommend that you make a
dermatology appointment if you notice any of the following on your face:
A warm feeling most of the time
Dry, swollen skin and patches of darker skin
A dusky brown discoloration to your skin
Acne-like breakouts that acne treatment won’t clear
Yellowish-brown, hard bumps around your mouth, eyes, or both
Burning or stinging when you apply skin care products
Swelling and thickening skin on your nose, cheeks, chin, or forehead
Signs that rosacea is affecting your eyes
When rosacea affects the eyes, it’s called ocular rosacea. Here are signs that rosacea may be affecting your eyes:
Swollen, warm eyelids
Red, bloodshot eyes
Pink eye (also known as conjunctivitis)
Crusty eyelids or eyelashes
Tearing (or dry eyes)
A feeling you have something in your eye
Burning and stinging in your eyes
Itchy, irritated eyes
Sensitivity to light
Even
when the rosacea on your skin is mild, you can develop eye problems. If
you have any of these signs or symptoms, see a board-certified
dermatologist or ophthalmologist.
Without treatment, ocular rosacea can affect your eyesight.
Another sign of rosacea: It worsens with certain activities
If
you have rosacea, you may notice that it worsens at certain times of
the year or when you do certain things. In the winter, your face may
feel raw and irritated when you’re outside on a cold, windy day. After
drinking a glass of red wine, your face may feel hot and uncomfortable.
Anything
that worsens your rosacea is called a trigger. Many things can be a
trigger, and triggers tend to vary from person to person. Some of the
most common rosacea triggers are:
Stress
Sunlight
Alcohol, especially red wine
Wind
Heat
Spicy foods
Hot beverages
Exercise
Some skin care or hair care products
-----------------------------------
Eye Health Among African Americans
African
Americans are at higher risk for some eye diseases, including cataract,
glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy. Many of these diseases don’t have
symptoms at first, and can cause vision loss or blindness if they’re not
treated.
African Americans have some of the highest
rates of vision loss and blindness caused by eye disease — and these
rates are getting higher. The good news is that comprehensive dilated
eye exams can find many of these eye diseases early, when they’re often
easier to treat.
Our Write the Vision initiative can
help you spread the word about healthy vision among African Americans in
your community. You can help prevent vision loss and blindness!
https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/resources-for-health-educators/eye-health-among-african-americans
-----------------------------------
There is something weird about this gorilla's eyes
Look closely and you'll see this gorillas has eyes that are more like a human's
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150808-gorillas-with-human-eyes
------------------------------------
Study of Cephalic Index in Indian Students
The
mean cephalic index in males wasrecorded to be 77.92±5.2. Head
shape wasclassified by cephalic index in which dominanttype was
dolicocephalic (33%) andbrachycephalic (33%), followed by
27%mesocephalic and 6% hyperbrachycephalic.The mean cephalic
index in female was80.85±7.71 which showed that majority
werebrachycephalic (33%), with 29% each ofdolicocephalic and
hyperbrachycephalic andleast common mesocephalic
(9%).Comparison of percentage of male and femalecephalic index is
depicted in Graph 1...
In our study, dominant type of
head shape in maleswas dolicocephalic (33%) and brachycephalic (33%) but
themean cephalic index was 77.92 (mesocephalic). This findingof
dolicocephalic was similar to study done on Indian males(Bhatia et
al., 1995) in which 58.5% of population wasdolicocephalic, but
not similar with the study by del Sol in
Chile (66%),
Bhasin (2006), Shah & Jadhav in Gujarati(41%) which showed
Mesocephalic head shape wascommon. The dolicocephalic shape was a
rare type found inIranian group about 7.5% in South Iran (Vojdani et
al.), 1.5%in North Iran (Golalipour, 2006b), 9% in
Tehran(Abolhasanzadeh & Farahani), 7% in Indian gujarati (Shah&
Jadhav) and about 2% in IX Region of Chile (del Sol).Also in our
study, the other dominant type of head shapewas Brachycephalic
(33%) which is similar to study doneon Turkman males (42.4 %) in North
Iran (Golalipour et al.,2007) and Tehran – Iran (36.6%)
(Abolhasanzadeh &Farahani). In the present study least common type
of male headshape was hyperbrachycephalic (6%). But this was
dominanttype observed in on Fars males in North of Iran
(52%)(Golalipour, 2006b), South Iran (34.3%) (Vojdani et al.).The
Cephalic index of Indian females in present studywas 80.85. This finding
was lower than Nakashima (1986)study with 87, Golalipour (2006a) study
on native Fars groupwith 85, Turkman group 82.8 in North of Iran
(Golalipour,2006b), Shah & Jadhav from India with 81.20. But
higherthan Abolhasanzadeh & Farahani study in Tehran- center ofIran
with 75, Buretic ́-Tomljanovic ́ et al. (2004) study inCroatia with
79.23, Ijaw (78.24) and Igbo (76.83) tribescommunity (Oladipo
& Olotu), Baysela state, Nigeria with72.24 (Eroje et al.). In
females the dominant type of head shape wasbrachycephalic (33%).
It is similar to other study in Tehran-Iran (42.7 %) (Abolhasanzadeh
& Farahani), South of Iran(42.5%) (Vojdani et al.), and Shah &
Jadhav study in India(49%). But in a study of Fars female,
North Iranhyperbrachycephalic (53.6%) (Golalipour, 2006a)
wasdominant which in our present study was 29%.In our study rare type of
head shape was mesocephalic(9%) which was not similar to other study
such as Tehran-Iran (9.9%) (Abolhasanzadeh & Farahani), Fars (0.1%)
andTurkman, North of Iran (0.5%) (Golalipour, 2006a), SouthIran (4.84%)
(Vojdani et al.), and Shah & Jadhav in India(0.3%) where
dolicocephalic was rare.This study showed that the mean cephalic index
offemale was significantly higher than those of male (p=0.025).The mean
cephalic index of this study was 78.92±6.31 whichsays that the
dominant head shape among Indians wasbrachycephaly which was lower
than Shah & Jadhav studyin India with 80.42, Bhargava &
Kher (1961) Berelas ofCentral India 79.80, Chile (80.42) by
del Sol, Fars maleswith 84.8 (Golalipour, 2006b), Fawehinmi et al.
(2008) studyin Port arcourt, Nigeria with 79.80.
But
the Cephalic index was higher when comparedto Abolhasanzadesh &
Farahani study in Tehran – Iran with75, Bhargav & Kher (1960) for
Bhils of Central India 76.98,Eroje et al. Ogbia, Nigeria with
72.96.This shows that there is tendency
towardsbrachycephalisation. Comparing previous records of cephalicindex
with recent work proves tendency towards"brachycephalisation" -
evidence of continuous growh of brainmore in the lateral direction (Shah
& Jadhav). Also, in tropi-cal zones head form is longer
(dolichocephalic), but intemperate zones the head form is more round
(mesocephalicor brachycephalic) (Bharati et al., 2001). Since India is
in thepartly in temperate and tropical zone, the present
classificationshows tendency to brachycephalization from dolicocephalic
The
variations of head shape may be due to hereditaryfactor or
environmental which may act as secondary effect(Golalipour et al.,
2007). The kind of diet taken could alsoplay a role in influencing
the dominant head shape. Headshapes can also change from one
generation to the other.For instance, in the first generation of
Japanese immigrantsin Hawaii it was noticed that they had an
increased headbreadth, a decreased head length and a higher cephalic
indexthan their parents (Heravi & Zieaee, 2002).With the help of
above statistics the sex as well asrace of the deceased can be
determined accurately. Thisknowledge is of immense importance to
anthropologists aswell as forensic science experts.
http://www.intjmorphol.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/art_22_301.pdf
----------------------------
A study of cephalic index of Bengali subjects of Tripura for determination of race
2018
http://www.jmedsoc.org/article.asp?issn=0972-4958;year=2018;volume=32;issue=2;spage=91;epage=97;aulast=Chakrabarti
Background:
There has been a common belief among the people of Tripura that the
racial origin of the Bengali subjects is from Aryans.
Aims: The
aim of this study was to determine the cephalic index of Bengali
population of Tripura, for determination of their racial origin.
Setting and Design: A data-based study carried out in a tertiary care teaching institute, Agartala.
Materials
and Methods: After obtaining ethical clearance from the Institutional
Ethics Committee, this study was conducted on the cadavers of Bengali
subjects of Tripura brought for medicolegal postmortem examination in a
tertiary care teaching hospital in Tripura. A total number of 411 cases
were selected at random for the study during April 2015–March 2016.
Using a slide caliper (Martin's type), the maximum length and breadth of
skull with and without soft tissue were measured and individual's
cephalic index was calculated.
Statistical Analysis Used: Data
collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science.
Results:
The study comprised 282 (68.6%) males and 129 (31.4%) females. Two
hundred and twenty-one numbers of subjects (53.77%) were found to be
mesaticephalic, while 184 subjects (44.76%) and 6 subjects (1.45%) were
brachycephalic and dolichocephalic, respectively. In case of cephalic
index without soft tissue, 233 subjects (56.69%) were mesaticephalic and
178 subjects (43.31%) were brachycephalic, whereas none was found to be
dolichocephalic.
Conclusion: Among 411 numbers of subjects, when
cephalic index was calculated with soft tissue, 221 numbers of subjects
(53.77%) were found to be mesaticephalic, while 184 subjects (44.76%)
and 6 subjects (1.45%) were brachycephalic and dolichocephalic,
respectively. In case of cephalic index without soft tissue, 233
subjects (56.69%) were mesaticephalic and 178 subjects (43.31%) were
brachycephalic, whereas none was found to be dolichocephalic.
-----------------------------
Bone Mineral Deficiency as the Main Factor of Dolichocephalic Head Flattening in Very-Low- Birth-Weight Infants
1994
https://www.nature.com/articles/pr1994292.pdf?origin=ppub
-----------------------------
Dolicocephalization in Cephalic Indices of Adult Yorubas of Nigeria
2014
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/janthro/2014/819472/
Abstract
Cephalic
index is an important parameter useful in establishing racial and
sexual dimorphism. This study was carried out to determine the cephalic
indices of adult Yorubas of age 18 to 40 years. One thousand and twenty
(1020) Yoruba adults consisting of 493 males and 527 females were
recruited randomly for the study. These were all residents of Port
Harcourt, Rivers State of Nigeria. The mean cephalic index of Yorubas
without reference to gender was 74.39 ± 5.41. Dominant and rare types of
head shapes are dolicocephalic (68.33%) and hyperbrachycephalic
(5.00%), respectively. The mean cephalic indices were 75.02 ± 4.76
(mesocephalic) in males and 73.75 ± 5.13 (dolicocephalic) in females. We
conclude that Yoruba males are mesocephalic while Yoruba females are
dolicocephalic. Besides, this study also reveals dolicocephalization
tending towards mesocephalization amongst Yorubas. These findings will
be very useful in forensic science, physical and medical anthropology,
and clinical practice, most especially craniofacial surgery as it
presents a characteristic feature of the head configuration for this
Nigerian race.
----------------------------
Cranian index of ancient skulls
https://anthrogenica.com/archive/index.php/t-5821.html?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=b8743b6afc1b15c1cbd2ad58057a4814f152f043-1585552480-0-AYmjAIMqhKwsHPpQsx7LF6GobT-EViBMoJ6QnjRhnCieGGrUYMi3TNmed_fug_-MkRnFLmDpbAgvYixK4ZCcEE3PujIy7G4xNKcWUoRd-Dwb9VX8KWMj47n5IIIKBe8Pz9B_CRziFYsgIhY1S4uf4WxSsrhwIKrVWMpjNmOyDIaH_b3ljDe5YsR9-MNKUXFyUJ4OzfyPsSHXcn4THlTM8upIsxEY5nxEgIYNOS0Uga80vlA53Gn_iavJzAku54GZTZ8CVzEcC7dzbQx_KLTvk4wISQZNfVTU1NcMDWYj9YqZEzdqu95fAj6Krc26mWs7vA
----------------------------
What is your cephalic index?
https://www.eupedia.com/forum/archive/index.php/t-27058.html
----------------------------
Brachycephalic, dolichocephalic and mesocephalic: is it appropriate to describe the face using skull patterns?
2013
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2176-94512013000300025
-----------------------------
Displacement of brain regions in preterm infants with non-synostoticdolichocephaly investigated by MRI
2007
http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/pub/articles/2007/2007_-_Mewes_et_al._-_NeuroImage.pdf
----------------------------
Diseases related with Frontal bossing and Dolichocephaly
ISOLATED SCAPHOCEPHALY
OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA TYPE 1
TRICHO-DENTO-OSSEOUS SYNDROME
ACROMESOMELIC DYSPLASIA, MAROTEAUX TYPE
CRANIOSYNOSTOSIS, BOSTON TYPE
THREE M SYNDROME 3; 3M3
THREE M SYNDROME 2; 3M2
CHILDHOOD-ONSET HYPOPHOSPHATASIA
MACROCEPHALY-DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY SYNDROME
SYNDROMIC MULTISYSTEM AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE DUE TO ITCH DEFICIENCY
https://www.mendelian.co/symptoms/frontal-bossing-and-dolichocephaly
----------------------------
Skull Malformation
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/skull-malformation
----------------------------
Blindness in Africa: present situation and future needs
CONCLUSIONS
Blindness prevalence rates vary widely but the evidence suggests that
approximately 1% of Africans are blind. The major cause is cataract;
trachoma and glaucoma are also important causes of blindness. The bulk
of blindness in the region is preventable or curable. Efforts should
focus on eye problems which are universally present and for which there
are cost effective remedies, such as cataract and refractive problems
and on those problems which occur focally and can be prevented by
primary healthcare measures, such as trachoma, onchocerciasis, and
vitamin A deficiency. Major development of staffing levels,
infrastructure, and community programmes will be necessary to achieve
Vision 2020 goals.
https://bjo.bmj.com/content/85/8/897
-----------------------------
African Americans at Increased Risk for Eye Diseases
https://yoursightmatters.com/african-americr-eye-diseases/
There
are many diseases and conditions to which African Americans are more
prone, such as diabetes, asthma, cancer, stroke, hypertension, lung
disease and eye disease. Here are some common conditions that affect
the eyes:
Cataracts
Cataracts are a clouding of
the lens of the eye. African Americans are 1.5 times more likely to
develop cataracts than the general population and five times more likely
to develop related blindness.
Glaucoma
Glaucoma
refers to a family of diseases that affect the optic nerve and cause
vision loss. African Americans are five times more likely than whites to
develop glaucoma and four times more likely to develop related
blindness.
Diabetes
African American adults are
twice as likely as non-Hispanic whites to be diagnosed with diabetes and
twice as likely to develop and die from diabetes-related complications.
Diabetes can cause diabetic retinopathy, a condition that can lead to
retinal damage and permanent vision loss.
Hypertension
Even
though hypertension may not seem to be related to the eyes, high blood
pressure can cause vision problems and vision loss. African American
adults are more likely to be diagnosed with hypertension but less likely
to have the condition under control (Source: Vision Problems).
-----------------------------
Eyes of Africa: The Genetics of Blindness
https://h3africa.org/index.php/consortium/projects/adeyinka-ashaye/
-----------------------------
African eye worm is worse than it looks: new study shows that the disease leads to increased mortality
October 22, 2016
https://www.dndi.org/2016/media-centre/press-releases/african-eye-worm-study-shows-disease-leads-to-increased-mortality/
-----------------------------
African Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness)
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/diseases/african-sleeping-sickness-african-trypansosomiasis
African
trypanosomiasis, also called African sleeping sickness, is a parasitic
disease spread by the tsetse fly. Symptoms include fatigue, high fever,
headaches, and muscle aches. If the disease is not treated, it can cause
death.
Who is at risk?
Travelers who go to
sub-Saharan Africa are at risk (see map). Travelers who plan to spend a
lot of time outdoors or who go to game parks are at increased risk.
-----------------------------
Recognize These Common Eye Conditions
https://www.onhealth.com/content/1/common_eye_conditions
Glaucoma
Cataracts
Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)
Retinal Detachment
Conjunctivitis (Pink Eye)
Uveitis
Eye Allergies
Sty (Stye)
Keratoconus
Blepharitis
Chalazion (Eyelid Cyst)
Corneal Ulcer
Diabetic Retinopathy
Floaters
----------------------------
Study: Eye-Socket Condition Thought Extinct is Actually Widespread
May 19, 2016
https://news.chass.ncsu.edu/2016/05/19/skull-condition-thought-extinct-is-actually-widespread/
Some
forensic anthropologists thought the skull condition called cribra
orbitalia (CO) was a thing of the past. However, new research from NC
State and the University of the Witwatersrand finds that it not only
still exists, but is fairly common in both North America and South
Africa.
CO is a condition in which the bone inside the
eye sockets becomes porous. It is not known to cause any adverse health
effects, but is generally regarded as being caused by iron deficiency
anemia. It has traditionally been used by anthropologists to assess diet
and health in prehistoric populations. For example, the presence of CO
could tell researchers that a population was not getting a sufficiently
varied diet.
“But there’s been a lot of debate about
the prevalence of CO in modern populations, with some saying it had
effectively disappeared,” says Ann Ross, a professor of forensic
anthropology at NC State and co-author of a paper on the work. “We
wanted to know if CO was still extant and, if so, how common it is in
modern populations, relative to earlier eras.”
For this
study, the researchers looked at modern, historic and prehistoric human
remains from South Africa, North Carolina and the Western Hemisphere
Database. Altogether, the researchers evaluated data on 844 skulls: 245
prehistoric, 381 historic (as recent as the early 20th century) and 218
modern.
Their findings were surprising: CO was not only present in modern populations, but that it was not even uncommon.
For
example, they found that two of the five modern North American juvenile
skulls evaluated in the study – 40 percent – had CO. And 15 of the 60
South African juveniles evaluated in the study – 25 percent – had CO.
“We
thought we might see some CO, but not to the extent that we did,” said
Ross, the director of the Forensic Sciences Institute at NC State. “The
high rates may stem from the fact that these remains were part of
forensic cases – there were often related to cases of homicide or
neglect. These cases are not representative of health for all children.”
Overall,
the researchers found that 12.35 percent of modern North Americans and
16.8 percent of modern South Africans, across all age groups, had CO.
Both
rates are higher than their historic counterparts. Only 2.23 percent of
historic South African skulls evaluated had CO, and only 6.25 percent
of historic North American skulls. Even the prehistoric North American
skulls had a lower rate of CO, at 11.86 percent.
-----------------------------
The African Eye Worm: A Case Report and Review
Abstract
Loiasis,
caused by the filarial nematode Loa loa, is often asymptomatic but
frequently manifests as episodic angioedema and periocular migration of
adult worms. Hence also known as the eye worm. 1 It is rarely
encountered in the United States among travelers and immigrants. This
report describes a case of loiasis in a Cameroonian student seen at a US
university clinic.
https://academic.oup.com/jtm/article/15/1/50/1849304
-----------------------------
Ophthalmologic Manifestations of Onchocerciasis
2018
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1204593-overview
Background
Onchocerciasis,
commonly known as river blindness, is a vector-borne disease that
affects millions of people in Africa, the Middle East, and South and
Central America. This disease is caused by the filarial parasitic
nematode Onchocerca volvulus, which is transmitted by the blackfly
vector Simulium, which carries third-stage larvae.
Infection
can lead to chronic skin disease, severe itching, and eye lesions that
can progress to complete blindness. There are approximately 123 million
people at risk for infection in 38 countries and at least 25
------------------------------
USC study examines age and ethnicity differences in eye problems
2007
https://news.usc.edu/17337/USC-study-examines-age-and-ethnicity-differences-in-eye-problems/
In
a study of more than 6,000 Los Angeles-area children—the largest study
of its kind—researchers at the Keck School of Medicine found that both
strabismus (commonly known as cross-eyed or wall-eyed) and amblyopia
(often referred to as lazy eye) were more prevalent in older children
than in younger children.
The study is currently available in the online edition of the journal Ophthalmology.
The
population for this first phase of the Multi-Ethnic Pediatric Eye
Disease Study (MEPEDS) was composed equally of African-American and
Hispanic youngsters, ages six months to six years, who reside in the Los
Angeles County community of Inglewood.
The overall
prevalence of strabismus was 2.5 percent; while this finding remained
constant regardless of gender or ethnicity, prevalence trended upward
with increasing age.
The overall prevalence of
amblyopia, which was 2.6 percent in both ethnic groups, similarly
trended upward with age, although researchers concluded that this
trending stabilizes by three years of age. As with strabismus,
researchers found no difference when amblyopia results were stratified
by gender.
------------------------------
Treacher Collins syndrome
Epidemiology
TCS
occurs in about one in 50,000 births in Europe. Worldwide, it is
estimated to occur in one in 10,000 to one in 50,000 births.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treacher_Collins_syndrome
------------------------------
Jacobsen syndrome
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/jacobsen-syndrome
Jacobsen
syndrome is a condition caused by a loss of genetic material from
chromosome 11. Because this deletion occurs at the end (terminus) of the
long (q) arm of chromosome 11, Jacobsen syndrome is also known as 11q
terminal deletion disorder.
The signs and symptoms of
Jacobsen syndrome vary considerably. Most affected individuals have
delayed development, including the development of speech and motor
skills (such as sitting, standing, and walking). Most also have
cognitive impairment and learning difficulties. Behavioral problems have
been reported, including compulsive behavior (such as shredding paper),
a short attention span, and easy distractibility. Many people with
Jacobsen syndrome have been diagnosed with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Jacobsen syndrome is
also associated with an increased likelihood of autism spectrum
disorders, which are characterized by impaired communication and
socialization skills.
Jacobsen syndrome is also
characterized by distinctive facial features. These include small and
low-set ears, widely set eyes (hypertelorism) with droopy eyelids
(ptosis), skin folds covering the inner corner of the eyes (epicanthal
folds [Picture]), a broad nasal bridge, downturned corners of the mouth, a thin
upper lip, and a small lower jaw. Affected individuals often have a
large head size (macrocephaly) and a skull abnormality called
trigonocephaly, which gives the forehead a pointed appearance.
More
than 90 percent of people with Jacobsen syndrome have a bleeding
disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome. This condition causes a
lifelong risk of abnormal bleeding and easy bruising. Paris-Trousseau
syndrome is a disorder of platelets, which are blood cells that are
necessary for blood clotting.
Other features of
Jacobsen syndrome can include heart defects, feeding difficulties in
infancy, short stature, frequent ear and sinus infections, and skeletal
abnormalities. The disorder can also affect the digestive system,
kidneys, and genitalia. The life expectancy of people with Jacobsen
syndrome is unknown, although affected individuals have lived into
adulthood.
---------------------------------------------
A modified staged surgical intervention for blepharophimosis-ptosis-epicanthus inversus syndrome: 125 cases with encouraging results.
2013
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-modified-staged-surgical-intervention-for-125-Song-Jia/d0c736d05ced3226cf611e35c2a9e44c4faa8112
---------------------------
Blepharophimosis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blepharophimosis
Blepharophimosis is a congenital anomaly in which the eyelids are underdeveloped such that they cannot open as far as usual and permanently cover part of the eyes.
---------------------------
Blepharophimosis, ptosis, and epicanthus inversus syndrome
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/blepharophimosis-ptosis-and-epicanthus-inversus-syndrome
---------------------------
10 - Oculoplastics
https://flylib.com/books/en/3.283.1.16/1/
---------------------------
Whites have a More Robust Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Response to a Psychological Stressor than Blacks
2007
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2253947/
---------------------
AFRICAN AMERICANS HAVE A GREATER SENSITIVITY TO ALPHA1-ADRENOCEPTOR-MEDIATED VENOCONSTRICTION COMPARED TO CAUCASIANS
2013
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3627527/
----------------------
INCIDENCE OF NORMAL PINEAL GLAND CALCIFICATION IN SKULL ROENTGENOGRAMS OF BLACK AND WHITE AMERICANS
1974
https://www.ajronline.org/doi/10.2214/ajr.122.3.503
----------------------
Facial pain. I. A prospective survey of 1052 patients with a view of: definition, delimitation, classification, general data, genetic factors, and previous diseases
1990
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2077847/
------------------------------
Differences in Pain Coping Between Black and White Americans: A Meta-Analysis
2016
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26804583/
----------------------
Neural and sociocultural mediators of ethnic differences in pain
2020
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-0819-8?proof=t
Abstract
Understanding ethnic differences in pain is important for addressing disparities in pain care. A common belief is that African Americans are hyposensitive to pain compared to Whites, but African Americans show increased pain sensitivity in clinical and laboratory settings. The neurobiological mechanisms underlying these differences are unknown. We studied an ethnicity- and gender-balanced sample of African Americans, Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites using functional magnetic resonance imaging during thermal pain. Higher pain report in African Americans was mediated by discrimination and increased frontostriatal circuit activations associated with pain rating, discrimination, experimenter trust and extranociceptive aspects of pain elsewhere. In contrast, the neurologic pain signature, a neuromarker sensitive and specific to nociceptive pain, mediated painful heat effects on pain report largely similarly in African American and other groups. Findings identify a brain basis for higher pain in African Americans related to interpersonal context and extranociceptive central pain mechanisms and suggest that nociceptive pain processing may be similar across ethnicities.
--------------------------------------------
'People
were scared of me, they would start running': African girl who had rare
brain surgery in Atlanta to remove giant tumor is now training to
become a doctor treating deformities
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3574703/People-scared-start-running-African-girl-rare-brain-surgery-Atlanta-remove-giant-tumor-training-doctor-treating-deformities.html
-----------------------------------------------
Dmanisi skulls
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmanisi_skulls
The
Dmanisi skulls are a set of hominin fossils (five crania and four
mandibles) from the archaeological site near Dmanisi, Georgia. They were
discovered in excavations at the site between 1991 and
2005. Dated to approximately 1.85-1.75 Ma, these fossils may
morphologically represent the populations of hominins that initially
emigrated out of Africa. Their small brain size, primitive skeletal
architecture, and range of variation has been a point of debate for
their taxonomic status. The fossil hominins have been described as
exhibiting similarity to Homo ergaster, Homo georgicus, and are
classified as either Homo georgicus, or as a subspecies of Homo erectus,
Homo erectus georgicus.
------------------------------
Cyclopia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopia
-----------------------
Coronal Synostosis Facts
https://nexusneurosurgery.com/coronal-synostosis-facts-and-photos-copy-copy/
----------------------
Cutis verticis gyrata
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutis_verticis_gyrata
---------------------
The Vibrant Life Of Rocky Dennis, The Boy Whose Rare Deformity Inspired The Film ‘Mask’
2020
https://allthatsinteresting.com/rocky-dennis
---------------------
Early postnatal cranial vault reduction and fixation surgery for severe hydrocephalic macrocephaly
2018
https://thejns.org/pediatrics/view/journals/j-neurosurg-pediatr/21/5/article-p486.xml
------------------------------
Genetic disorders associated with macrocephaly
2008
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajmg.a.32434
-------------------------------
Ancient DNA puts a face on the mysterious Denisovans, extinct cousins of Neanderthals
2019
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/09/ancient-dna-puts-face-mysterious-denisovans-extinct-cousins-neanderthals
------------------------------------------------
Homo erectus - A Bigger, Smarter, Faster Hominin Lineage
About
two million years ago, a new set of fossils began to appear in the
human fossil record. Designated as Homo erectus, they show evidence of
increases in both body size and brain size.
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/homo-erectus-a-bigger-smarter-97879043/
Figure 1: Map of Homo erectus fossil localities.
Date (mya) Locality Key Fossils
1.9 – 1.2 Koobi Fora, Kenya WT 15000 (Nariokotome), ER-3733, ER-3883
1.9 – 0.7 Olduvia Gorge, Tanzania OH 9, OH 12
1.8 – 1.7 Dmanisi, Georgia D3444, D2700, D2280, D2282
1.8 – 1.6 Swartkrans, South Africa SK 847
1.8 – 0.9 Sangiran/Trinil, Indonesia Trinil 2, Mojokerto, Sangiran 17, Sangiran 2
1.0 – 0.8 Ceprano, Italy Ceprano 1
0.8 – 0.4 Zhoukoudian, China ZKD E1, D1, L1, L2, H3
0.8 – 0.6 Bodo, Ethiopia Bodo
0.6 – 0.3 Atapuerca, Spain Sima de los huesos (numerous)
0.3 – 0.1 Jinniushan, China Jinniushan
0.2 – 0.05 Ngandong, Indonesia Ngandong 1, 9, 10, 11
Table
1: Key Homo erectus fossil sites. A partial list of key Homo erectus
fossil localities, and some of the key specimens preserved at each.
Exact dates are difficult to obtain for many of these localities, so the
above dates represent best approximate ranges. In some cases, such as
Olduvai Gorge and Koobi Fora, fossils have been recovered from many
individual localities within the area, spanning a large range of dates.
--------------------------------------
Scientists Have Found the Oldest Known Human Fossils
The 300,000-year-old bones and stone tools were discovered in a surprising place—and could revise the history of our species.
https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/06/the-oldest-known-human-fossils-have-been-found-in-an-unusual-place/529452/
----------------------------------------
Do pigmentation and the melanocortin system modulate aggression and sexuality in humans as they do in other animals?
2012
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886912000840
----------------------------------------
What Can We Learn From Homo naledi’s Skull?
September 17, 2015
After
the excitement of Homo naledi’s discovery and extraction from deep in a
narrow cave in South Africa, and the implication that these non-humans
may have intentionally carried their dead deep into the earth, we are
left with the bones themselves, what they tell us about these creatures,
and what new questions they inspire. These...
https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2015/09/17/what-can-we-learn-from-homo-naledis-skull/
----------------------------------------
Homo Naledi - New Questions On Human Evolution
Jul 13, 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OgBJmdpqWsU
----------------------------------------
Homo naledi and Pleistocene hominin evolution in subequatorial Africa
May 9, 2017
https://elifesciences.org/articles/24234
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
Homo erectus , our ancient ancestor
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/homo-erectus-our-ancient-ancestor.html
Reconstruction of Turkana Boy, the approximately 1.5-million-year-old, nearly complete skeleton discovered in Kenya. He was only about nine years old and already 1.6m tall. This reconstruction by Ălisabeth DaynĂšs is on display at the MusĂ©e National de PrĂ©histoire in France. © Wolfgang Sauber, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
----------------------------------------
(We can see that Neanderthals and Humans both have lighter skin and darker skin versions.
Did the white skinned Neanderthals or the black skin Neanderthals exist first).
--------------------------------------------
Europeans did not inherit pale skins from Neanderthals (Debated)
26 September 2012
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22308-europeans-did-not-inherit-pale-skins-from-neanderthals/
The people who built Stonehenge 5000 years ago probably had the same pallid complexion of many modern inhabitants of the UK. Now it seems that the humans occupying Britain and mainland Europe only lost the darker skins of their African ancestors perhaps just 6000 years earlier, long after Neanderthals had died out. The finding confirms that modern Europeans didn’t gain their pale skin from Neanderthals – adding to evidence suggesting that European Homo sapiens and Neanderthals generally kept their relationships strictly platonic.
There is a clear correlation between latitude and skin pigmentation: peoples that have spent an extended period of time at higher latitudes have adapted to those conditions by losing the skin pigmentation that is common at lower latitudes, says Sandra Beleza at the University of Porto in Portugal. Lighter skin can generate more vitamin D from sunlight than darker skin, making the adaptation an important one for humans who wandered away from equatorial regions.
Those wanderings took modern humans into Europe around 45,000 years ago – but exactly when the European skin adapted to local conditions had been unclear.
Three genes
Beleza and her colleagues studied three genes associated with lighter skin pigmentation. Although the genes are found in all human populations, they are far more common in Europe than in Africa, and explain a significant portion of the skin-colour differences between European and west African populations.
By analysing the genomes of 50 people with European ancestry and 70 people with sub-Saharan African ancestry, Beleza’s team could estimate when the three genes – and pale skin – first became widespread in European populations. The result suggested that the three genes associated with paler skin swept through the European population only 11,000 to 19,000 years ago.
“The selective sweeps for favoured European [versions of the three genes] started well after the first migrations of modern humans into Europe,” says Beleza.
The finding agrees with earlier studies suggesting that modern humans did not lose their dark skins immediately on reaching Europe, says Katerina Harvati at the University of TĂŒbingen in Germany. “[The new study] is interesting because it suggests a very late differentiation of skin pigmentation among modern humans,” she says.
An earlier analysis of ancient DNA in 40,000 and 50,000-year-old Neanderthal bones, respectively from Spain and Italy, suggested that our extinct cousins had light-coloured skin and reddish hair in their European heartland. But the Neanderthals went extinct around 28,000 years ago – long before modern humans in Europe gained a pale skin. Evidently Neanderthals did not pass these useful local adaptations on to modern humans, despite genetic evidence that the two species interbred.
Middle Eastern contact
That might seem unusual given that the two species lived cheek-by-jowl in Europe for several thousand years. But it makes sense if the interbreeding evident in the genes occurred in the Middle East, where modern humans and Neanderthals first met, says Chris Stringer at the Natural History Museum, London.
In that region, Neanderthals may have had darker skins, explaining why our species did not gain a pale skin after interbreeding with them. Indeed, a study earlier this year of ancient DNA suggested that Neanderthals living in what is now Croatia had dark skin and brown hair.
“Neanderthal skin colour was probably variable, as might be expected for a large population spread out over a large territorial expanse,” says Harvati.
--------------------------------------------
Humans Still Evolving as Our Brains Shrink
2009
https://www.livescience.com/7971-humans-evolving-brains-shrink.html
--------------------------------------------
Whites have a More Robust Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Response to a Psychological Stressor than Blacks
2007
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2253947/
--------------------------------------------
AFRICAN AMERICANS HAVE A GREATER SENSITIVITY TO ALPHA1-ADRENOCEPTOR-MEDIATED VENOCONSTRICTION COMPARED TO CAUCASIANS
2013
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3627527/
--------------------------------------------
Rates of Molecular Evolution Suggest Natural History of Life History Traits and a Post-K-Pg Nocturnal Bottleneck of Placentals
2017
https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdfExtended/S0960-9822(17)31081-3
------------------------------------------------------------
List of examples of convergent evolution
May 2017
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_examples_of_convergent_evolution
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Platypus ancestor had teeth but inferior electro-sense
10-13-2016
https://cosmosmagazine.com/palaeontology/platypus-ancestor-had-teeth-but-less-developed-sixth-sense
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The pathology of vitamin D deficiency in domesticated animals: An evolutionary and comparative overview
Dec 2018
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1879981717301213
------------------------------------------------------------
Strong biomechanical relationships bias the tempo and mode of morphological evolution
2018
http://www.marthamunoz.com/uploads/2/3/4/5/23454312/munoz_2018_elife.pdf
--------------------------------------------
'Red Deer Cave people' may be new species of human
2012
Stone age remains of people with a penchant for home-cooked venison could represent a new human evolutionary line
The fossilised remains of stone age people recovered from two caves in south west China may belong to a new species of human that survived until around the dawn of agriculture.
The partial skulls and other bone fragments, which are from at least four individuals and are between 14,300 and 11,500 years old, have an extraordinary mix of primitive and modern anatomical features that stunned the researchers who found them.
Named the Red Deer Cave people, after their apparent penchant for home-cooked venison, they are the most recent human remains found anywhere in the world that do not closely resemble modern humans.
The individuals differ from modern humans in their jutting jaws, large molar teeth, prominent brows, thick skulls, flat faces and broad noses. Their brains were of average size by ice age standards.
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/mar/14/red-deer-cave-people-species-human
----------------------------------------------------
'All bets now off' on which ape was humanity's ancestor
8-28-2019
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-49486980
---------------------------------------
Differentiation of modern sub-Saharan African populations: craniometric interpretations in relation to geography and history
2004
https://journals.openedition.org/bmsap/3873
----------------------------------------
Racial differences in skull shape.
2008
Firstly,
the mostly obvious difference is that the Caucasoid top skull has a
very flat profile, while the bottom skull is ‘prognathic’, meaning it’s
jaws protrude out. Although not obvious from this image, the nose
aperture of the Caucasian skull has a narrower triangle shape; with a
longer, thinner bony protrusion at the point where the nose comes out
from between the eyes (nuchal ridge). Caucasian skulls also posess a
nasil sill (unless you see this shown, no explanation will make sense),
Asian and African skulls don’t.
https://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/07/23/racial-differences-in-skull-shape/
----------------------------------------
This could be why our eyebrows evolved
April 9, 2018
https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/09/health/eyebrows-hominin-human-evolution/index.html
----------------------------------------
Maxillary Arch Size and Shape in American Blacks and Whites
https://www.angle.org/doi/pdf/10.1043/0003-3219%282000%29070%3C0297%3AMASASI%3E2.0.CO%3B2
Benjamin G. Burris, BAa; Edward F. Harris, PhDb
Abstract:American
blacks have larger teeth than whites, but they less frequently exhibit
crowding—apparently because of larger arch dimensions. This study
quantified differences in arch size and shape inthese 2 constituents
of the US population. Eighteen dental and bony landmarks were
digitized from themaxilla of each of 332 subjects with permanent,
intact dentitions, proportionately divided between blacksand whites,
men and women. Linear, angular, and area measurements were
computer-generated. Archwidths averaged 10% greater in blacks than
whites, and mesiodistal arch depths had a greater difference,at 12%.
Blacks, with a more square palate and significantly larger palatal
index, were distinguished fromwhites primarily by greater intercanine
and interpremolar widths. Arch perimeter was greater in blacks by 8%, and
cross-sectional area of the arch was 19% greater in blacks than whites,
so blacks and whites differsubstantially for these parameters not only
in size, but in shape as well. These differences are relevant
inprosthodontics and orthodontics since individualization of treatment
leads to more effective treatment byworking within the patient’s
natural arch form instead of making patients fit a single
standard.
-----------------------------------------
Racial Identification in the Skull and Teeth
6-21-2011
Blumenfeld: Racial Identification in the Skull and Teeth
https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1137&context=totem
----------------------------------------
Ancient Mutation Explains Missing Wisdom Teeth
2013
https://www.livescience.com/27529-missing-wisdom-teeth.html
----------------------------------------
5 Countries with the Worst Oral Health
https://www.dmdtoday.com/news/5-countries-with-the-worst-oral-health
4. Bolivia
This
country nestled in the middle of South America has some of the worst
oral health in the region. Twelve-year-olds have an average of four
decayed, missing, or filled-in teeth. A study also suggests that only 50
percent of students own a toothbrush.
3. Australia
This
Western country may come as a surprise on this list, but its statistics
earn it the number 3 spot. Nearly half of all 6-year-olds have tooth
decay in their baby teeth. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
children between ages four and 15 are more likely to experience dental
disease.
2. India
This subcontinent
with over a billion people was bound to make the list. India’s National
Oral Health Program reports that 95 percent of all adults have gum
disease, and 50 percent of citizens don’t use a toothbrush. The program
also noted that 70 percent of children under the age of 15 have dental
caries.
1. Philippines
This island
nation located in between the South China Sea and the Philippine Sea
takes the cake (literally and figuratively) of the worst oral health in
the world. The Philippines College of Dentistry found that nearly 90
percent of Filipinos suffer from tooth decay. Another astonishing
finding is that nearly 100 percent of children between 3 and 5 years old
have cavities. For a country that is less than half the size of Texas,
those are some staggering numbers!
-----------------------------------------
Color/race inequalities in oral health among Brazilian adolescents
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1415-790X2009000300003
----------------------------------------
Unknown lung disease in China
With an unknown
lung disease apparently spreading in China, could there be a new
outbreak akin to SARS? Not necessarily. Authorities have yet to identify
it. And many respiratory illnesses are caused by viruses.
https://www.dw.com/en/unknown-lung-disease-in-china/a-51902586
------------------------------
Race, ethnicity and lung function: A brief history
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4631137/
Over
the past century, the spirometer has gained widespread use across the
world for the diagnosis and management of many respiratory diseases in
both specialist and primary care settings. Chronic obstructive
respiratory disease, a major cause of disability and mortality, is
defined by spirometry. The great variability in lung function
measurements over time, space, within countries, within individuals,
among groups and among spirometers, however, has complicated the
interpretation of ‘normal’. Temporal trends can be quite dramatic, with
lung function increasing in certain populations and decreasing in others
during the same time period. Since the 1960s, much effort has been
expended to standardize the many sources of variability.
One
outcome of global standardization projects is the common practice of
‘race correction’, also called ‘ethnic adjustment’. Most commercially
available spirometers internationally ‘correct’ or ‘adjust’ for race in
one of two ways: by using a scaling factor for all people not considered
to be ‘white’; or by applying population-specific norms. To enable the
spirometer, the operator must select the race of an individual, as well
as indicate their age, sex/gender and height. How race (or population)
is determined varies, with most operators either asking patients to
self-identify or ‘eyeballing it’. Interviews with users of the
spirometer indicate that many operators are unaware that they are
automatically activating race correction when they select a patient’s
race. Because ‘correction’ is programmed into the spirometer by the
manufacturer, it can be difficult to disable.
Despite
attempts by international organizations, the approach to ‘correction’ or
‘adjustment’ is not always consistent. The Joint Working Party of the
American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society recommends the
use of race- and ethnic-specific references values when available.
Alternatively, they recommend correction factors. In the United
States (US), spirometers use either correction factors of 10% to 15% for
individuals labelled ‘black’ and 4% to 6% for people labelled ‘Asian’,
or population-specific standards, usually those derived from the third
US-based National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for
‘Caucasians’, African Americans and Hispanics. In Europe, correction
factors are used. Canada continues to negotiate the delicate balance
between international and local standards. The United Kingdom-based
Vitalograph spirometer programs population-specific standards into
spirometers marketed in North America, whereas they use a correction
factor for devices marketed in Europe.
RACIALIZING THE SPIROMETER
What
is the history of this practice? How did the idea of racial and ethnic
difference in lung capacity become so widely accepted such that
correction factors are actually programmed into the spirometer? The
notion that black and white lungs differ has a long history dating to
the early years of the US slavery-based republic. In his influential
Notes on the State of Virginia, former president and leading
Enlightenment intellectual Thomas Jefferson featured lung differences
between slaves and white colonists. Among the many physical distinctions
that Jefferson described to justify the condition of slaves in the
republic, one was “a difference of structure in the pulmonary apparatus”. Jefferson’s ideas about lungs would remain, however, in the realm
of philosophical speculation without empirical foundation until the
second half of the 19th century.
Interest in modern
spirometers surged in Europe in the 1840s after John Hutchinson, a
London-based physician, published several studies describing the
technical features of the spirometer and its potential applications for
monitoring the fitness of the police and armed forces, and life
insurance applicants and for diagnosing tuberculosis, the great scourge
of 19th-century industrializing nations. In a period of great enthusiasm
for precision instrumentation and experimental interest in the
functional features of the lungs, Hutchinson avidly promoted his
innovation, naming the spirometer, delineating “vital capacity” into
discrete compartments, adapting the instrument to large-scale studies,
and advocating for his technology to London’s prestigious scientific
societies.
Hutchinson faced the same dilemma future
researchers would encounter in ordering the wide variability in lung
function. While he was most excited about his discovery that the
relationship between height and lung capacity demonstrated what he
considered to be “a general law of nature”, height did not completely
account for the variability he observed. To capture more fully the
potential he envisioned for his instrument, Hutchinson further
classified lung capacity measurements according to occupation.
However, occupational categories would remain an organizing principle
for research on lung capacity measurements only into the early 20th
century in Britain.
Knowledge of the spirometer
spread quickly and Hutchinson’s innovations were adopted within a few
years in Germany and North America, where researchers worked to further
refine its technical details and uses. Perhaps the most significant
experiments for the future of spirometry were those of plantation
physician and slaveholder Samuel Cartwright in the US south. Drawing
explicitly on Jefferson’s interpretive framework, Cartwright built his
own spirometer to study difference in lung capacity in slaves and
whites, and to quantify it precisely. According to Cartwright, “the
deficiency in the negro” was “20 per cent”. Defining difference as
‘deficiency’, Cartwright established race as a key organizing principle
of lung function measurements in the US.
Jefferson’s
philosophical musings were to capture an even more solid empirical
foundation in the 1860s when racial research examining lung capacity
shifted to the northern US. In 1864, the US Sanitary Commission asked
Benjamin Apthorp Gould to head a massive anthropometric survey of black
and white soldiers at the end of the Civil War. Over several years,
field workers collected detailed data regarding bodily characteristics
of soldiers, which Gould synthesized in his 1869 Investigations in the
Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers. For
unclear reasons, he chose to devote an entire chapter to describing lung
capacity – measured using a spirometer– according to race. Without any
adjustment for height or age, or attention to working and living
conditions of newly emancipated slaves, Gould reported that “full
blacks” had lower lung capacity than “whites”. The results were neither
surprising to Gould nor in need of careful explanation. Using ostensibly
neutral language, he wrote:
The great
difference of the mean volume found for the black race from that which
seems to belong to the whites, cannot fail to attract attention at the
first glance. Its bearings are perhaps better manifested by the more
detailed tabulations which will follow.
Nearly 30 years
later, Frederick Hoffman, chief statistician for Prudential Life
Insurance Co. would turn to Gould’s data to make broad claims about the
lack of fitness of African Americans for freedom. According to Hoffman,
“the smaller lung capacity of the colored race is in itself proof of an
inferior physical organism”.
There were important
dissenting views at the time. Notably, leading African American
intellectuals WEB DuBois and Kelly Miller wrote trenchant critiques of
Hoffman’s arguments over the inferiority of the “negro”. These
critiques, however, failed to alter the narratives of difference
embedded in lung capacity measurements, which would gain further
scientific foundation in the 20th century.
Beginning
in the US in the 1920s, during a period when eugenic policies rooted in
hereditarianism were popular, research documenting racial difference in
lung function became an even broader global enterprise. In most
studies, whites had higher lung capacity than blacks, Chinese or
Indians; explanations for findings centred on innate difference.
For example, Wilson and Edwards published the first set of
spirometry-based lung function standards according to race in 1922,
speculating that difference could be due to “a possible racial factor”.
By 1925, JE Myers published his reference handbook for clinicians, in
which he reported differences among whites, blacks, Chinese and
Filipinos as unquestioned fact. Thus, the idea of racial difference
in lung capacity, first proposed by Jefferson and further supported by
Cartwright and Gould in the US, was firmly established by the early 20th
century as an ostensible fact. Future research would build on this
framework.
During the 1960s – and continuing to the
present – interest in racial difference expanded to numerous populations
across the world and researchers focused on developing standards for
what they considered to be distinct populations. For historically
specific reasons, the most influential studies coming from the US
centred on black-white differences. The consequential technological
innovation of a ‘scaling factor’ for blacks in 1974, however, was the
result of the collaboration between Charles Rossiter of the
Pneumoconiosis Unit in South Wales and Hans Weill of Tulane Medical
School in New Orleans, Louisiana.
A large
proportion of the literature used an explanatory framework that
emphasized innate or anthropometric difference. For the most part,
researchers assumed racial identities to be straightforward. There
was one notable exception. In an article important to the history of
spirometry, South African researchers questioned the interpretations of
difference, arguing that previous research failed to account fully for
social conditions. North American and European researchers,
however, failed to cite these articles and the idea that racial
difference was innate remained firmly entrenched in the pulmonology
literature.
As demonstrated in a recent systematic
review, the exclusive racial framework continued into the 21st
century. Rather than a fluid, historically contingent system of
classification, researchers treated race as a stable category,
uncomplicated by social class, sex or geographical context. In fact,
researchers only defined how they assigned individuals to racial
categories in 17.3% of the articles; 94% of the articles failed to
include any measures of social class. Most recently, genomics
studies have reinforced, rather than questioned, race-based models.
Gould continues to be cited to the present day in prestigious US
journals.
CONCLUSION
How can this
brief history help us analyze the contemporary dilemmas in lung
function research as it pertains to the use of race and ethnicity in
pulmonary function tests? At the very least, the idea that people
labelled ‘white’ naturally have higher lung capacity than other races
throughout the world should be approached with some skepticism.
The
history of lung function suggests that we should be approaching
spirometry differently. Rather than using race in a routinized way that
reflects assumptions of genetic difference, we should be asking
different research questions about the lived experience of race.
Research and clinical practice needs to devote more careful attention to
the social nature of racial and ethnic categories and draw on more
complex explanatory frameworks that incorporate disproportionate
exposures to toxic environments, differential access to high-quality
care and the daily insults of racism in every sphere of life that
manifest biologically. Across the globe, there is a continuum of human
phenotypic and genetic variation that cannot be apportioned into
discrete categories. By featuring race with only marginal attention to
the intersection of race and social class, we risk ignoring the complex
and dynamic relationship of lung function and the environment. It is
well-established that lower forced vital capacity is associated with
social conditions, notably poverty. The specific details of
how social class and race influence lung function physiologically,
however, remains to be determined. It is time to rethink the problematic
practice of race correction in light of this history.
-------------------------------
Different Craniofacial Characteristics Predict Upper Airway Collapsibility in Japanese-Brazilian and White Men
2016
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4944782/
Abstract
Background
OSA
pathogenesis is complex and may vary according to ethnicity. The
anatomic component predisposing to OSA is the result of the interaction
between bony structure and upper airway soft tissues and can be assessed
using passive critical closing pressure (Pcrit). We hypothesized that
Japanese-Brazilians and whites present different predictors of upper
airway collapsibility, suggesting different causal pathways to
developing OSA in these two groups.
Methods
Male
Japanese-Brazilians (n = 39) and whites (n = 39) matched for age and OSA
severity were evaluated by full polysomnography, Pcrit, and upper
airway and abdomen CT scans for determination of upper airway anatomy
and abdominal fat, respectively.
Results
Pcrit
was similar between the Japanese-Brazilians and the whites (−1.0 ± 3.3
cm H2O vs −0.4 ± 3.1 cm H2O, P = .325). The Japanese-Brazilians
presented smaller upper airway bony dimensions (cranial base, maxillary,
and mandibular lengths), whereas the whites presented larger upper
airway soft tissue (tongue length and volume) and a greater imbalance
between tongue and mandible (tongue/mandibular volume ratio). The
cranial base angle was associated with Pcrit only among the
Japanese-Brazilians (r = −0.535, P < .01). The tongue/mandibular
volume ratio was associated with Pcrit only among the whites (r = 0.460,
P < .01). Obesity-related variables (visceral fat, BMI, and neck and
waist circumferences) showed a similar correlation with Pcrit in the
Japanese-Brazilians and the whites.
Conclusions
Japanese-Brazilians
and whites present different predictors of upper airway collapsibility.
Although craniofacial bony restriction influenced Pcrit only in the
Japanese-Brazilians, an anatomic imbalance between tongue and mandible
volume influenced Pcrit among the whites. These findings may have
therapeutic implications regarding how to improve the anatomic
predisposition to OSA across ethnicities.
Figure 1
A-D,
Representative sagittal and volumetric CT scan reconstructions of a
Japanese-Brazilian (A and C) and a white (B and D) subject matched for
age and OSA severity. Cephalometric landmarks used are shown in A and B.
Volumetric reconstructions of the tongue and mandible are shown in C
and D. The Japanese-Brazilian subject was 49 years old with a BMI of 28
kg/m2 and an apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) of 60 events/h. The white
subject was 46 years old with a BMI of 30 kg/m2 and an AHI of 60
events/h. The Japanese-Brazilian subject presented smaller cranial base
dimensions (NS and NSBa) (A), suggesting increased bony restriction, but
smaller tongue volume and tongue/mandibular volume ratio (C),
suggesting a better balance between bony and soft tissue, as compared
with the white subject (B and D). Pharyngeal critical closing pressure
(Pcrit) was similar (−0.4 and −0.2 cm H2O, Japanese-Brazilian and white,
respectively). A = point A; ANS = anterior nasal spine; B = point B; Ba
= cranial base; Cd = medial condylar point of the mandible; Ep =
epiglottis base; H = hyoid bone; In = incisors occlusion; MP =
mandibular plane; MV = mandibular volume; N = nasion; NS = cranial base
length; NSBa = cranial base angle; PNS = posterior nasal spine; Pog =
pogonion; S = sella; TL = tongue length; TV = tongue volume; TV/MV =
tongue/mandibular volume ratio.
-------------------------------
-------------------------------
Which
oropharyngeal factors are significant risk factors for obstructive
sleep apnea? An age-matched study and dentist perspectives
2016
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4944919/
Abstract
Objective
Obstructive
sleep apnea (OSA) is a common sleep breathing disorder. Untreated OSA
may lead to a number of cardiovascular complications. Dentists may play
an important role in OSA detection by conducting careful oral
examinations. This study focused on the correlation of oral anatomical
features in Thai patients who presented with OSA.
Methods
We
conducted a prospective comparative study at a sleep/hypertension
clinic and a dental clinic at Khon Kaen University in Thailand. Patients
with OSA were enrolled in the study, along with age-matched patients
with non-OSA (controls). Baseline characteristics, clinical data, and
oropharyngeal data of all patients were compared between the two groups.
Oropharyngeal measurements included tongue size, torus mandibularis,
Mallampati classification, palatal space, and lateral pharyngeal wall
area. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify the
factors associated with OSA.
Results
During the
study period, there were 156 patients who met the study criteria; 78
were patients with OSA and the other 78 were healthy control subjects.
In the OSA group, there were 43 males with a mean age of 53 (standard
deviation 12.29) years and a mean BMI of 30.86 kg/mm2. There were 37
males in the control group with a mean age of 50 (standard deviation
12.04) years and a mean BMI of 24.03 kg/mm2. According to multivariate
logistic analysis, three factors were perfectly associated with OSA,
including torus mandibularis class 6, narrow lateral pharyngeal wall,
and Mallampati class 4. There were two other significant factors
associated with having OSA, namely, BMI and Mallampati classification.
The adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence interval) of these two factors
were 1.445 (1.017, 2.052) and 5.040 (1.655, 15.358), respectively.
Conclusion
Dentists
may play an important role in the detection of OSA in patients with
high BMI through careful oropharyngeal examination in routine dental
treatment. A large torus mandibularis, Mallampati class 4, and a narrow
lateral pharyngeal wall are important anatomical risk factors for OSA.
Introduction
The
prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been reported to be
2%–4% in the general population.1 It is a contributing factor for
cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary artery disease,
and stroke, as well as for traffic accidents and poor quality of
life.2–4 Diagnosis of OSA can be made using polysomnography in patients
who have an apnea–hypopnea index of more than five events per hour.
Obesity is a major risk factor for OSA. Other risk factors are oral
abnormalities such as macroglossia and a narrow pharynx.5 Early
detection and treatment of OSA have been shown to reduce the risk of
cardiovascular diseases and, thus, death from heart diseases, and to
reduce the frequency of strokes.
Dentists actually
play an important role in OSA diagnosis and treatment. They see
patients’ oral cavity in daily practice and can identify those who are
at risk of OSA. In addition, oral appliances can be custom-made for OSA
treatment. Several craniofacial factors have been reported to be
important risk factors for OSA. Neck circumference of >17 inches
(43.2 cm) in men and 16 inches (40.6 cm) in women increases the risk of
OSA. Similarly, large tongue and Mal-lampati classification are also
significant predictors of OSA. A small study from People’s Republic of
China conducted with 15 patients with OSA showed that neck circumference
and craniofacial measurements such as anterior superior hyoid to
mandibular plane or the velum tip to the pharyngeal wall parallel to the
Frankfurt horizontal were associated with OSA.6 These factors may
require several landmarks and are not practical for clinical use. This
study aimed to evaluate if any oropharyngeal parameters associated with
OSA can be detected using methods that are more practical for a dentist.
--------------------------------
Macroglossia
Macroglossia
is the medical term for an unusually large tongue. Severe
enlargement of the tongue can cause cosmetic and functional difficulties
in speaking, eating, swallowing and sleeping. Macroglossia is uncommon,
and usually occurs in children. There are many causes. Treatment
depends upon the exact cause.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroglossia
--------------------------------
Primary systemic amyloidosis presenting as macroglossia
2017
http://www.saudijos.org/article.asp?issn=1658-6816;year=2017;volume=4;issue=2;spage=117;epage=121;aulast=Aluri
A
61-year-old female patient was presented to Surgery Department, Yashoda
Hospitals, Malakpet, Hyderabad, with chief complaints of gradually
progressive diffuse enlargement of the tongue for 6 months. On
examination, she appeared to be in good general health, but his speech
had been slurred ostensibly, due to tongue swelling. On clinical
examination, the patient was found to be edentulous, with tongue grossly
enlarged. No ulcerations or nodules were seen over the tongue surface.
The patient is not a known case of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, or
ischemic heart disease. Systemic examination was unremarkable.
An
incisional biopsy was performed on the both lateral border and ventral
aspect of the tongue and abdominal fat. Histopathological examination of
Hematoxylin and Eosin (H and E)-stained sections revealed extracellular
deposition of amorphous, eosinophilic hyaline-like material in the
submucosal connective tissue, which appeared to be amyloid. To confirm
the presence of amyloid, a special staining with Congo red was
performed, which showed peach, red color on light microscopy, and apple
green birefringence on polarized light microscopy. To rule out a
systemic involvement, we performed a series of investigations[Figure 1].
Figure
1: Macroglossia and ventral, lateral aspect of tongue biopsy, and
abdominal fat biopsy showing amorphous, eosinophilic hyaline-like
material (blue color arrows)
--------------------------------
Relative rather than absolute macroglossia in patients with Down syndrome: Implications for treatment of obstructive sleep apnea
October 2008
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23154765_Relative_rather_than_absolute_macroglossia_in_patients_with_Down_syndrome_Implications_for_treatment_of_obstructive_sleep_apnea
-------------------------------
Segmental tracheal dysplasia in a mixed breed dog
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1571127/
-------------------------------
Nasal Analysis and Anatomy: Anthropometric Proportional Assessment in Asians—Aesthetic Balance from Forehead to Chin, Part II
2015
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4656157/
Abstract
Caucasians
usually have reduction or correction rhinoplasty; however, Asian nasal
surgery is mainly for augmentation rhinoplasty. Therefore, an Asian
rhinoplasty should start with a precise understanding of ethnic
anatomical differences. The authors summarize the anatomical
characteristics of Asians to ensure the best results.
An
Asian rhinoplasty can be a surgical challenge because of the diverse
anatomy between different racial groups. Surgeons undertaking
rhinoplastic surgery in non-Caucasian individuals need a broad
understanding of ethnic-specific features.1 Asian aesthetic goals should
be patient-tailored to the ethnicity and culture of the individual
patient.2 Compared with Caucasians, Asians generally have a shorter,
wider, and less-projecting nose, requiring augmentative and structural
rhinoplasty, whereas reduction rhinoplasty and some form of lower
lateral cartilage reduction is more popular in Caucasians with dorsal
hump prominence.
Morphology Classification
There
are many types of Asian nose morphologies.4 Three broad morphological
types have been used to describe the spectrum of ethnic variations. The
leptorrhine (“tall and thin”) nose is associated with Caucasian or
Indo-European descent. The platyrrhine (“broad and flat”) nose is
associated with African origins. And the mesorrhine (“intermediate”)
nose has features intermediate between the leptorrhine nose and the
platyrrhine nose. The “typical” Asian or Latino nose is commonly
regarded as mesorrhine, with low radix, variable anterior dorsal
projection, rounded and underprojected tip, and rounded nostrils.
Ethnic Variation
One
of the main features of the nonoperated Asian nose is a more triangular
shape on the frontal view. When assessing the Asian nose from the side
view, it is common to see a nasal bridge that is lower in height when
compared with a Caucasian nose. Anatomical features of Asians include
thicker skin, weaker cartilages, less dorsal projection, rounder tip and
alae, and a more-retrusive columella. Another common feature of the
Asian nose is a flared nasal base, with wider-than-average nostrils.
External Soft Tissue Envelope
The
anatomical structures of the nose can be categorized in groups by
anatomical layers. Surgical dissection between these structural planes
is critical to preserving the anatomical structures. External coverage
of the nose is composed of the skin, subcutaneous tissue, fibromuscular
layer, and perichondrium or periosteum.
Skin
The
thickness and texture of the skin can have a significant effect on the
result of the operation; therefore, it is important to evaluate patient
skin characteristics during preoperative planning. Generally, nasal skin
becomes more pliable and thinner in the upper portion, but tighter and
more adherent in the lower portion.8 The mean skin thickness of the
nasofrontal angle area is 1.25 mm—the thickest area. In contrast, the
mean skin thickness of the rhinion is 0.6 mm—the thinnest area.9 Asian
noses tend to have thicker skin and more abundant subcutaneous soft
tissue than noses of Caucasians.8 Fibrofatty tissue is the dense
structure that attaches to the underlying cartilage.10
Subcutaneous Layer
Four soft tissue layers are present between skin and the osseocartilaginous framework, consisting of the following:
Superficial fatty layer panniculus
The fibromuscular layer (nasal SMAS) is basically an extension of the
superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS). The SMAS becomes retracted
on both sides in the case of disconnection due to careless surgery or
trauma; bone or cartilage is placed underneath the location that may be
exposed. Moreover, the nasal SMAS may be directly adhered to the the
superficial fatty layer and scar tissue attached to the dermis.
The deep fatty layer houses important vessels and a motor nerve, which
are located at a shallow point. In surgery, it is easy and safe to
elevate the external skin envelope at the lower portion of this deep
layer of fat.
Periosteum or perichondrium
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Nasal Musculature
The
nasal musculature is involved in facial expression, the variable motion
of the nose, and nasal cavity control during respiration. The muscles
involved can be broadly classified into intrinsic muscles and extrinsic
muscles. They function by interrelating partially with each other. All
of the aforementioned nasal musculatures receive innervation from the
zygomatic division of the facial nerve. The intrinsic muscles of the
nose are the nasalis and its lower portion: the dilator naris or the
levator alae. The external muscles of the nose are the procerus, the
orbicularis, the depressor septi, and the levator labii alaeque nasi
(Fig. 1). These muscles provide static support for the nose as well as
the facial muscles.
There has been some
debate on the function of the intrinsic muscles. Nonetheless, intrinsic
muscle has an important role in maintaining the nasal airway. The nasal
musculature can be generally classified into four groups based on
function as shown in Table 1.8
Supporting Neurovasculature
Blood Supply
The
blood supply of the nose consists of the facial artery, which is a
branch of the external carotid artery, and the ophthalmic artery, which
is a branch of the internal carotid artery and the internal maxillary
artery (Fig. 2). They form various vascular arcades in the areas around
the nose. The terminal pattern of each branch varies greatly depending
on the patient. Nevertheless, many branches have overlapping
territory. Hence, an interruption or a significant decrease in blood
circulation rarely occurs, even if some of the branches are damaged.
Blood is supplied to the midline from the branches on both sides of the
nose in the form of dual perfusion. Some people have better perfusion on
the left side, whereas others have it on the right side. The phenomenon
is closely related to facial asymmetry. The extensive collateral
blood supply of the nose makes an open rhinoplasty safe.
Bony Vault
The
upper third of the nose is a bony vault formed by a pair of nasal bones
and the frontal process of the maxilla. It is supported by the bony
septum at midline (Fig. 4). This bony vault is linked to the nasal
process of the frontal bone superiorly, the frontal process of maxilla
laterally, and the upper lateral cartilage inferiorly. The posterior
margin of the frontal process of the maxilla together with the lacrimal
bone forms a lacrimal groove. The lacrimal sac is situated in this area.
The junction between the caudal area of the nasal bone and the cephalic
area of the upper lateral cartilage is referred to as the keystone
area. The caudal area of the nasal bone and the cephalic area of the
upper lateral cartilage are overlapped by 4 to 5 mm on average. In
general, they overlap a shorter distance among Asians compared with
Caucasians. The nasal bone length has a certain degree of variation.
However, it is 25 mm on average among Caucasians.8 For Asians, the nasal
bone is often short, small, or thick, and a fracture can occur without
excessive manipulation. Thus, it is very important to identify the
characteristics of the bony vault of a patient in the preoperative
evaluation.
Alar Cartilage (Lower Lateral Cartilage)
Traditionally,
the alar cartilage has been classified into two parts: medial crus and
lateral crus.22 The two parts are connected by a dome segment. However,
Sheen and Sheen22 added the concept of the middle crus to make it easier
to understand dissection for tip plasty (Fig. 6). The reason why such
classification is important is that complex and diverse shapes of middle
crus have a very significant impact on the shape of the nasal lobule.
Those cases in which the angle of domal divergence is 60 degrees or
smaller are deemed normal. Those cases in which the aforementioned angle
is 60 degrees or higher are deemed to have a broad nose. Of those, the
cases in which the length of the middle crus dome segment is 4 mm or
longer with a curved part and wide domal angle are deemed to have a boxy
tip. In contrast, a bulbous tip is defined as follows: The dome segment
serving as a meeting point of lateral crus and middle crus is not
curved as sharply as a boxy tip; the curved shape is less sharp than the
average level; and the widening angle of dome is wide.
The
medial crus is classified into a footplate and a columella segment. The
medial crura on both sides are attached to each other by a small amount
of fibroareolar tissue. Between the two-sided medial crura and the
two-sided middle crura lies dense fibrous connective tissue in a
horizontal direction. Thus, the two-sided medial crura and the two-sided
middle crura are firmly attached to each other. The thick part located
at the very front of fibrous connective tissue is referred to as the
interdomal ligament. The lateral crus is the largest component of the
nasal lobule, which performs an important role in defining the shape of
the anterosuperior portion of the ala nasi. The lateral crus is in
direct contact with the dome segment of the middle crus in intorsion. On
the lateral side, it is adjacent to the first cartilage of an accessory
cartilage chain that is in contact with the pyriform aperture.8 The
connection between the caudal edge of the upper lateral cartilage and
the cephalic edge of the lateral crus of the alar cartilage is quite
unique: The caudal edge of the upper lateral cartilage is curved just
like the edge of a scroll toward the outside of the nose as is the edge
of the cephalic edge scroll of the lateral crus of the alar cartilage,
whose end is curved toward the inside of the nose. Thus, it is
overlapped as though the former is hung onto the latter (scroll area).
In most patients, these two cartilages are overlapped in this way,
thereby improving the function of the internal nasal valve.
Sesamoid
cartilages are located at the junction between the upper lateral
cartilage and the lateral crus of the alar cartilage. It serves as a
bearing so that the lateral crus can move smoothly above the upper
lateral cartilage. They are connected by dense fibrous connective
tissue. This fibrous connective tissue is adjacent to the perichondrium
on the surface and the upper lateral cartilage and the alar cartilage
lateral crus.
The accessory cartilage is a chain of
several cartilages located in the lateral area rather than the lateral
crus of the alar cartilage. They are not only interconnected with each
other, but also with the lateral crus through the dense fibroareolar
tissue. Hence, these cartilages function as if they are one single
cartilage.8 Therefore, it is more important to have accessory cartilage
than sesamoid cartilage for the shape of the nose. Alar cartilage is
shorter among Asian people compared with Caucasian people. It is also
weaker among Asian people; its supporting structures are weak. In
addition, when the other soft tissues including the skin of that area
are thick, the alar cartilage will be even weaker in terms of a
supporting structure.
Nasal Septum
The nasal
septum stands straight up at the midline to support the nasal dorsum.
Moreover, it divides the nasal cavity into two spaces. The shape and
width of the septum varies among different races. Nonetheless, it is
shaped like an “I” when viewed on cross-section. It is shaped like a “T”
when the edge of the dorsum of nasal septum is wide.25 The nasal septum
consists of one septal cartilage and four bones that consist of the
perpendicular plate of ethmoid, vomer, nasal crest of maxilla, and nasal
crest of palatine bone (Fig. 7). For convenience sake, the nasal septum
is subdivided into the bony septum, the cartilaginous septum, and the
membranous septum.
Conclusions
Each
race has a different nose shape. Caucasians usually have a narrow nose
(leptorrhine), whereas African Americans have a flat nose (platyrrhine).
Asians have intermediate features somewhere between these two races
(mesorrhine). The following are anatomical considerations in the
performance of an Asian rhinoplasty.
The nasal dorsum is wide, low, and flat.
The nose tip is low, wide, and rounded (bulbous tip): This is because
the alar cartilage is small and both sides are separated from the nose
tip.
The skin of the nose tip and supratip area has
a thick dermis and a subcutaneous layer. Also, it has an abundance of
fibrofatty tissues. Moreover, sebaceous glands are highly developed.
The nasolabial angle looks narrow when viewed from the side. Also, the
ala is huge and bent caudally. The columella is relatively short,
whereas the columella base is recessed cephalically.
The nostril is splayed out horizontally when viewed from caudal side.
Thus, the distance between alar base on both sides is far.
The anterior nasal spine is hypoplastic.
The alar cartilage is small and weak, making it difficult to project
the nasal tip with alar cartilage suturing alone. Furthermore, it is
also impossible for the alar cartilage to sustain the tip with the
rhinoplasty approach that is conducted commonly among Caucasians.
Nasal septal cartilage is very thin. Thus, it cannot be routinely
utilized as an autogenous cartilage structural support graft.
-------------------------------
Diffuse panbronchiolitis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_panbronchiolitis
Diffuse
panbronchiolitis (DPB) is an inflammatory lung disease of unknown
cause. It is a severe, progressive form of bronchiolitis, an
inflammatory condition of the bronchioles (small air passages in the
lungs). The term diffuse signifies that lesions appear throughout both
lungs, while panbronchiolitis refers to inflammation found in all layers
of the respiratory bronchioles (those involved in gas exchange). DPB
causes severe inflammation and nodule-like lesions of terminal
bronchioles, chronic sinusitis, and intense coughing with large amounts
of sputum production.
The disease is believed to occur
when there is susceptibility, or a lack of immune system resistance, to
DPB-causing bacteria or viruses, caused by several genes that are found
predominantly in individuals of East Asian descent. The highest
incidence occurs among Japanese people, followed by Koreans. DPB occurs
more often in males, and usually begins around age 40. It was recognized
as a distinct new disease in the early 1960s, and was formally named
diffuse panbronchiolitis in 1969.
If left untreated,
DPB progresses to bronchiectasis, an irreversible lung condition that
involves enlargement of the bronchioles, and pooling of mucus in the
bronchiolar passages. Daily treatment of DPB with macrolide antibiotics
such as erythromycin eases symptoms and increases survival time, but the
disease currently has no known cure. The eventual result of DPB can be
respiratory failure and heart problems.
Epidemiology
DPB
has its highest prevalence among the Japanese, at 11 per 100,000
population. Korean, Chinese, and Thai individuals with
the disease have been reported as well. A genetic predisposition among
East Asians is suggested. The disease is more common in males, with the male to female ratio at 1.4–2:1 (or about 5 men to 3 women).
The average onset of the disease is around age 40, and two-thirds of
those affected are non-smokers, although smoking is not believed to be a
cause. The presence of HLA-Bw54 increases the risk of diffuse
panbronchiolitis 13.3-fold.
In Europe and the
Americas, a relatively small number of DPB cases have been reported in
Asian immigrants and residents, as well as in individuals of non-Asian
ancestry. Misdiagnosis has occurred in the West owing to
less recognition of the disease than in Asian countries. Relative to the
large number of Asians living in the west, the small number of them
thought to be affected by DPB suggests non-genetic factors may play some
role in its cause. This rarity seen in Western Asians may also be
partly associated with misdiagnosis.
History
In
the early 1960s, a relatively new chronic lung disease was being
observed and described by physicians in Japan. In 1969, the name
"diffuse panbronchiolitis" was introduced to distinguish it from chronic
bronchitis, emphysema, alveolitis, and other obstructive lung disease
with inflammation. Between 1978 and 1980, results of a nationwide survey
initiated by the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan revealed more
than 1,000 probable cases of DPB, with 82 histologically confirmed. By
the 1980s, it was internationally recognized as a distinct disease of
the lungs.
Before the 1980s, the prognosis or
expected outcome of DPB was poor, especially in cases with
superinfection (the emergence of a new viral or bacterial infection, in
addition to the currently occurring infection) by P. aeruginosa. DPB
continued to have a very high mortality rate before generalized
antibiotic treatment and oxygen therapy were beginning to be used
routinely in the effort to manage symptoms. Around 1985, when long-term
treatment with the antibiotic erythromycin became the standard for
managing DPB, the prognosis significantly improved. In 1990, the
association of DPB with HLA was initially asserted.
-------------------------------
Hallermann Streiff Syndrome
https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/hallermann-streiff-syndrome/
General Discussion
Summary
Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome (HSS) is a rare disorder that is primarily characterized by
distinctive malformations of the skull and facial (craniofacial) region;
sparse hair (hypotrichosis); eye abnormalities; dental defects;
degenerative skin changes (atrophy), particularly in the scalp and nasal
regions; and proportionate short stature. Characteristic craniofacial
features include a short, broad head (brachycephaly) with an unusually
prominent forehead and/or sides of the skull (dyscephaly); a small,
underdeveloped lower jaw (hypoplastic mandible); a narrow, highly arched
roof of the mouth (palate); and a thin, pinched, tapering nose. Many
affected individuals also have clouding of the lenses of the eyes at
birth (congenital cataracts or corneal stromal opacities); unusually
small eyes (microphthalmia); and/or other ocular abnormalities
(glaucoma, retinal detachments). Dental defects may include natal or
neonatal teeth, delayed tooth eruption, enamel hypoplasia, absent
permanent teeth (hypodontia or partial adontia), abnormal tooth
development resulting in short roots and early loss of teeth, and/or
improper alignment of teeth. In almost all cases, HSS has appeared to
occur randomly for unknown reasons (sporadically), and this syndrome is
thought to be the result of a new change to genetic material (mutation).
Introduction
Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome was first described in the medical literature in 1893. The
disorder was named for two eye doctors who later independently reported
cases of the syndrome, recognizing it as a distinct disease entity.
Signs & Symptoms
Associated
symptoms and signs vary greatly in range and severity from case to
case. The principal features of Hallermann-Streiff syndrome include
abnormalities of the skull (cranium) and certain bones of the face
(known as dyscephaly); distinctive facial features; ocular defects;
dental anomalies; and/or proportionate short stature. In many cases,
additional abnormalities are also present.
Many
affected infants have an unusually shaped skull, with abnormal shortness
of the head (brachycephaly) and prominence of the forehead and/or sides
of the skull (frontal and/or parietal bossing). In some cases, the head
may also be relatively small (microcephaly) and the cheekbones may be
underdeveloped (malar hypoplasia). In addition, there is typically
abnormal widening of the fibrous joints (sutures) between certain bones
of the skull and delayed closure of the two “soft spots” (fontanelles)
at the front and back of the cranium.
Affected
individuals also often have a disproportionately small face; a high,
narrow roof of the mouth (palate); and/or a small lower jaw
(micrognathia) with receding chin (retrognathia). The nose is typically
quite narrow and pointed; with a narrow nasal bridge, small nostrils and
underdeveloped nasal cartilage that tends to become more convex
(beaked) with age. The underdevelopment of the jaw and nose may result
in upper airway obstruction and breathing difficulties in young
children. In addition, many people with this syndrome have very sparse
hair (hypotrichosis), particularly of the scalp, eyelashes, eyebrows,
beard, pubic hair, and hair under the arms. Degenerative skin changes
(atrophy) are also often present and largely limited to the scalp and
nose. Due to such changes, the skin in these regions may appear
unusually taut and thin, and regional blood vessels may seem unusually
pronounced. Nasal lipofilling has been used to treat the atrophy of the
nasal skin, resulting in improvement in nasal skin color and texture.
The
craniofacial abnormalities associated with the disorder, such as small
nostrils and glossoptosis, can cause obstruction of the upper airway,
particularly during the newborn period and infancy. Glossoptosis refers
to downward displacement or retraction of the tongue that may occur
secondary to abnormal smallness of the lower jaw (micrognathia). A
narrow upper airway may lead to feeding, swallowing, and/or breathing
difficulties; severe early respiratory infections; episodes in which
there is absence of spontaneous breathing (apnea); anesthetic
complications; and potentially life-threatening complications in severe
cases. Abnormal softening of cartilage of the windpipe (tracheomalacia)
has also been reported in some cases, which may further complicate
swallowing and breathing difficulties. In addition, there have also been
reports in which respiratory insufficiency (e.g., due to a narrow upper
airway and/or tracheomalacia) has resulted in enlargement and strain of
the lower right chamber (ventricle) of the heart (cor pulmonale) and
possibly the left ventricle as well, leading to heart failure. Heart
failure is an inability of the heart to pump enough blood to meet the
body’s requirements for oxygen and other nutrients.
Most
individuals with HSS have ocular abnormalities. The most common ocular
finding is clouding (opacity) of the lenses of both eyes at birth
(congenital bilateral cataracts). According to reports in the medical
literature, the cataracts, which consist of whitish, milky lens masses,
may gradually spontaneously resolve (spontaneous cataract absorption) in
some cases. Many individuals with this disorder also have abnormal
smallness of both eyes (bilateral microphthalmia) of varying severity
and/or unusually deep-set eyes (enophthalmos). As a result of these
small deeply-seated eyes, patients may appear to have small, droopy
eyelids (blepharoptosis). The edges of the eyelids may appear to turn
inwards, particularly on the lower side (lower lid entropion) so that
the eyelashes rub against the eye surface (cornea) leading to
irritation, erosions and corneal opacities. Some eye experts suggest
corneal stromal opacities, which are ill defined and bilateral with
clear stroma between the opacities might be a hallmark feature of this
condition. In some cases, additional ocular defects may also be present,
such as abnormal deviation of one eye in relation to the other
(strabismus); involuntary, rapid, rhythmic eye movements (nystagmus);
unusual blueness of the “whites” of the eyes (blue sclera); abnormally
elevated pressure of the fluid of the eyes (glaucoma); retinal
detachments; down-slanting eyelids (palpebral fissures); or malformed
orbital bones and/or other findings. Such ocular defects may result in
varying degrees of visual impairment or, in some cases, blindness.
Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome is frequently characterized by dental abnormalities. These may
include the eruption of teeth before or shortly after birth (natal or
neonatal teeth), which may be misdiagnosed as supernumerary teeth. There
is also delayed eruption of permanent teeth, abnormal tooth
development, with severely undeveloped roots leading to early loss of
permanent teeth and partially developed crowns, improper contact between
the teeth of the upper jaw and those of the lower jaw (malocclusion),
and/or persistence of the primary (deciduous) teeth. Additional dental
defects may include absence of permanent teeth (hypodontia or
anodontia), and/or severe, early tooth decay with enamel hypoplasia.
In
approximately one third of reported cases, infants with HSS are born
prematurely and/or have a low birth weight. About two thirds of affected
individuals have growth deficiency after birth and associated
proportionate short stature.
In some cases, additional
physical abnormalities have also been reported in association with the
disorder. Some affected males may have decreased testicular function
(hypogonadism), undescended testes (cryptorchidism), and/or abnormal
placement of the urinary opening of the penis (hypospadias). Skeletal
abnormalities have also been reported in some cases, such as widely
flared shoulder blades (winged scapula), abnormal curvature of the spine
(lordosis or scoliosis), abnormal depression of the breastbone (pectus
excavatum), and/or webbing of fingers and/or toes (syndactyly).
Radiological findings in infants can include a large, poorly ossified
skull with decreased ossification in the sutural areas, multiple Wormian
bones within sutures, and severe mid-facial hypoplasia with a prominent
nasal bone, small teeth, thin and gracile long bones with poor
demarcation of the cortex from the medullary portion, neonatal bowing of
the radius and ulna and widening at the metaphyseal ends of the long
bones. Some affected infants may also have vitiligo, a condition
characterized by irregular patches of skin that lack pigmentation. In
addition, in rare cases, various structural heart malformations
(congenital heart defects) have been reported. Such congenital heart
defects have included an abnormal opening in the partition (septum) that
separates the lower or upper chambers of the heart (ventricular or
atrial septal defects) or abnormal narrowing of the opening between the
pulmonary artery and the right ventricle of the heart (pulmonary
stenosis).
In most cases, children with this disorder
have normal intelligence; however, intellectual disability has been
reported in approximately 15 percent of cases. In rare instances,
neurologic abnormalities have been noted, including hyperactivity;
seizures, and/or choreoathetosis, a condition characterized by abnormal,
involuntary, irregular jerky motions and slow, writhing movements. With
more patients undergoing MRI studies, various structural abnormalities
of the brain have been reported. One as such case showed the absence of
the corpus callosum (the thick band of nerve fibers that connects the
right and left halves of the brain).
Causes
In
almost all reported cases, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome has occurred
randomly for unknown reasons (sporadically), most likely due to a new
spontaneous dominant genetic change (mutation). There have been reports
of patients with this disorder reproducing successfully and bearing
multiple normal children. From families with an affected child, there is
little evidence for this being a recessively inherited disorder in
which both parents are carriers (normal looking but carry the mutation).
Therefore, the mode of inheritance of this disorder remains elusive
making it difficult to determine the exact recurrent risk.
Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome bears some similarity to some progeroid syndromes that belong
to the laminopathies, such as Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
(caused by de novo point mutations in the LMNA gene) and mandibuloacral
dysplasia (recessive disorders resulting from mutations in LMNA and
ZMPSTE24). ZMPSTE24 and ICMT encode proteins involved in
posttranslational processing of lamin A. Sequencing of the genes LMNA,
ZMPSTE24 and ICMT in 8 patients with Hallermann-Streiff syndrome
revealed no evidence that this disorder is a type of laminopathy, but
these other conditions remain part of the differential diagnosis,
particularly when autosomal recessive inheritance is suspected.
Affected Populations
Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome appears to affect males and females in relatively equal
numbers. More than 150 cases have been reported in the medical
literature.
Related Disorders
Symptoms of the
following disorders can be similar to those of Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome. Comparisons may be useful for a differential diagnosis:
Hutchinson-Gilford
progeria syndrome is a very rare progressive disorder of childhood
characterized by premature aging (progeria); growth delays occurring in
the first year of life resulting in short stature and low weight;
deterioration of the layer of fatty tissue beneath the skin
(subcutaneous lipodystrophy); and characteristic craniofacial
abnormalities including an abnormally small face, underdeveloped jaw
(micrognathia), unusually prominent eyes, and/or a small, “beak-like”
nose. In addition, during the first year or two of life, scalp hair,
eyebrows, and eyelashes may become sparse, and veins of the scalp may
become unusually prominent. Additional symptoms and physical findings
may include joint stiffness, repeated non-healing fractures, a
progressive aged appearance, delays in tooth eruption (dentition),
and/or malformation and crowding of the teeth. Individuals with the
disorder typically have normal intelligence. In most cases, affected
individuals develop premature, widespread thickening and loss of
elasticity of arterial walls (arteriosclerosis), potentially resulting
in life-threatening complications. Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
is due to a de novo heterozygous mutation in the lamin A gene (LMNA) on
chromosome 1q22. (For more information on this disorder, choose
“Hutchinson Gilford” as your search term in the Rare Disease Database)
Other disorders with less severe, but overlapping features include
mandibuloacral dysplasia, an autosomal recessive disorder, which is
caused by different mutations in the LMNA gene or the ZMPSTE24 gene, and
Werner syndrome, an autosomal recessive progeroid syndrome caused by
autosomal recessive mutations in the RECQL2 gene.
Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch
syndrome (also known as neonatal progeroid syndrome) is an extremely
rare genetic disorder characterized by an aged appearance at birth
(neonatal progeroid appearance); growth delays before and after birth
(prenatal and postnatal growth deficiency); and deficient or absent
fatty tissue under the skin (subcutaneous lipoatrophy), causing the skin
to appear abnormally thin, fragile, and wrinkled. In addition abnormal
deposits of fat may accumulate around the buttocks, flanks, genitals and
anus (anogenital area). Affected infants and children have distinctive
facial features with unusual prominence of the forehead (frontal
bossing) and the sides of the skull (parietal bossing), causing the head
to appear large (pseudohydrocephalus); unusually small, underdeveloped
(hypoplastic) bones of the face and abnormally small facial features; a
small “beak-shaped” nose that becomes more pronounced with advancing
age; and/or sparse scalp hair, eyebrows, and/or eyelashes. Most infants
and children with Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch syndrome have unusually thin
arms and legs; abnormally large hands and feet; progressive neurological
and neuromuscular abnormalities; varying degrees of intellectual
disability; and severe delays in the acquisition of skills requiring the
coordination of mental and muscular activities (psychomotor
retardation). In addition, affected infants and children are prone to
repeated respiratory infections that may result in life-threatening
complications. Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch syndrome is inherited as an
autosomal recessive genetic trait. Core manifestations of this syndrome
include marked pre-natal and severe post-natal growth retardation, an
unusual face (triangular shape, sparse hair, small mouth, pointed chin),
dental anomalies (natal teeth; hypodontia), generalized lipodystrophy
with localized fat masses, and-in some cases-progressive ataxia and
tremor. It has been suggested that the syndrome might be caused by
biallelic variants in POLR3A, identified by exome sequencing in a single
patient only. There are major differences but there are also
similarities in phenotype, which sustain the suggestion that the
syndrome can be caused by disturbed POLR3A functioning.
Seckel
syndrome is an extremely rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized
by growth deficiency prior to birth (intrauterine growth retardation)
resulting in low birth weight. Growth deficiency continues after birth,
resulting in severe proportionate short stature. Other symptoms and
physical features associated with Seckel syndrome include an abnormally
small head (microcephaly); varying degrees of intellectual disability;
and/or unusual characteristic facial features including “beak-like”
protrusion of the nose. Other facial features may include abnormally
large eyes, a narrow face, malformed ears, and/or an unusually small jaw
(micrognathia). In addition, some affected infants exhibit incurving of
the fifth fingers in a bent position (clinodactyly), congenital hip
dysplasia, dislocated forearms (radial dislocation), and/or other
physical abnormalities. Seckel syndrome inherited as an autosomal
recessive genetic trait due to homozygous or compound heterozygous
mutation in the ATR gene on chromosome 3q22.1-q24. Other syndromes
resembling this disorder are caused by mutations in the RBBP8 gene on
chromosome 18q11.31-q11.2; mutations in the CENPJ gene on chromosome
13q12; mutations in the CEP152 gene on chromosome 15q21; or mutations in
CDK5RAP2 on chromosome 9q33.2.
Osteodysplastic
bird-headed dwarfism, also known as Majewski osteodysplastic primordial
dwarfism (MOPD) is an extremely rare inherited disorder characterized
by low birth weight, prenatal-onset growth deficiency resulting in
severe proportionate short stature with an unusually small head
(microcephaly), and characteristic facial features including prominence
of the nose, abnormally large eyes, an unusually small jaw
(micrognathia) that is recessed (retrognathia), a narrow face, and/or
low-set ears. In some cases, affected children may exhibit other
abnormalities, such as mild intellectual disability, skeletal
deformities, and/or patchy areas of hair loss (alopecia) on the scalp.
There are three types of MOPD, designated type I, II, and III that are
distinguished by differences in their symptoms. All are inherited as
autosomal recessive genetic traits caused by mutations in different
genes (MOPD I – RNU4ATAC; MOPD II – PCNT; MOPD III – possibly the same
entity as MOPD I).
Among children who present with
microcephaly and bilateral congenital cataracts with small eyes, one
should also consider MICRO syndrome, a rare autosomal recessive disorder
characterized by microcephaly, microphthalmia, microcornea, congenital
cataracts, optic atrophy, corpus callosum hypoplasia, severe
intellectual disability, spastic diplegia, and hypogonadism. This
disorder is caused by mutation in the RAB3GAP2 gene on chromosome 1q41;
the RAB3GAP1 gene on 2q21.3; the RAB18 gene on 10p12.1; or the TBC1D20
gene on 20p13.
Another possibility is early onset
Cockayne syndrome, an autosomal recessive disorder resulting in severe
failure to thrive, severe mental retardation, congenital cataracts, loss
of adipose tissue, joint contractures, distinctive face with small,
deep-set eyes and prominent nasal bridge, kyphosis, and cachectic
dwarfism. This disorder is termed Cockayne syndrome type B (CSB) and
caused by mutation in the gene encoding the group 6 excision-repair
cross-complementing protein (ERCC6) on chromosome 10q11.23. Cockayne
syndrome type A (CSA) is caused by mutation in the ERCC8 gene on
chromosome 5q11. Among patients with Cockayne syndrome, approximately
80% have mutations in the ERCC6 gene.
Diagnosis
Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome may be suspected shortly after birth or during the first year
of life by the identification of characteristic physical findings and
symptoms. The diagnosis may be confirmed by thorough clinical
evaluation; a detailed patient history; and specialized tests (e.g.,
radiographic, ophthalmologic, and dental studies) that may help to
detect and characterize the abnormalities associated with this disorder.
Congenital cataracts with unusually small eyes (microphthalmia) are
important findings for the initial diagnosis of Hallermann-Streiff
syndrome, but other disorders must be considered as part of the
differential diagnosis, and this is best accomplished through whole
exome sequencing given the extensive differential diagnosis, which
includes a number of autosomal recessive disorders.
---------------------------------------
A familial study of Hallermann–Streiff–François syndrome
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5476608/
Abstract
Hallermann–Streiff–François
syndrome is a rare sporadic genetic pathology characterized by a
phenotype consisting of growth retardation, ocular abnormalities, and a
“bird-like head”. We hereby report a case of this syndrome found in
three generations of the same family – father, daughter, and
grand-daughter – who presented with a short stature and facial
dysmorphic features, nystagmus, cataract, and bilateral microphthalmia.
The discussion is based on the clinical and genetic aspects, and the
challenges in management of this oculo-mandibulo-facial syndrome. The
association of congenital cataract, facial dysmorphic features, and
microphthalmia, should guide the diagnosis of dysmorphic syndromes such
as Hallermann–Streiff–François syndrome.
Case 1: bird-like face with strabismus and nystagmus.
Case 2: nasal skin atrophy.
------------------------------------------
Parasitic infections of the lung: a guide for the respiratory physician
Abstract
https://thorax.bmj.com/content/66/6/528
Parasitic
infections of the lung occur worldwide among both immunocompetent and
immunocompromised patients and may affect the respiratory system in a
variety of ways. This review provides an update on the presenting
symptoms, signs, investigation and management of diseases affecting the
lung caused by protozoa, nematodes and trematodes. The clinical
presentations and radiographic findings of several of these diseases may
mimic tuberculosis and malignancy. It is important to consider
parasitic infections in the differential diagnosis of such lung
diseases. If identified early, most parasitic diseases that affect the
lung are curable with medical or surgical treatments.
Introduction
With
increasing travel and migration, rates of parasitic lung and pleural
diseases are increasing in the immunocompetent population in developed
countries as well as among immunocompromised patients. Respiratory
physicians should consider parasitic diseases in the differential
diagnosis of lung conditions such as tuberculosis and malignancy, with
which parasitic lung diseases may be confused.
This
review describes the presentation, investigation and management of
common parasitic infections affecting the lung caused by protozoa,
nematodes and trematodes. The diseases have been grouped according to
their manner of presentation: (1) those presenting with focal lesions
and (2) those which characteristically present with diffuse lung
disease. Focal lung lesions have been divided into cystic lung lesions,
coin lesions and consolidation/pleural effusion. Diffuse lung disease
has been divided into transient pulmonary infiltrates and
alveolar/interstitial lung changes. Diseases that may present in a
variety of ways are fully described only the first time they are
mentioned.
Conditions presenting with focal lung lesions
Cystic lung lesions
Hydatidosis
Distribution and life cycle
Hydatid
disease is caused by larvae of Echinococcus tapeworm species, the
definite hosts of which are members of the Canidae family (dogs and
foxes). Most cases are caused by Echinococcus granulosus which has a
worldwide distribution including South America, countries surrounding
the Mediterranean, the Middle East, some sub-Saharan African countries,
Russia and China. Although most cysts form in the liver, 20–30% form in
the lung.
Dogs are the definitive host for E granulosus
and harbour the adult worms in their gut. The eggs shed in dog faeces
remain viable for many weeks and are able to contaminate food sources of
intermediate hosts such as sheep, cattle and horses. When humans become
accidental intermediate hosts after eating food contaminated with eggs,
the ingested eggs hatch, releasing larvae which migrate from the
gastrointestinal tract to the circulation. The eggs travel to the liver
or lungs and slowly develop into hydatid cysts over a period of several
months or years. Occasionally, lung cysts form after transdiaphragmatic
spread of parasites following the rupture of liver cysts.
-------------------------------------------
Tracheal surgery using 4D-printing technology successful in China
2016-04-19
https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/life/2016-04/19/content_24670067.htm
--------------------------------------------
Tracheal collapse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracheal_collapse
Tracheal
collapse in dogs is a condition characterized by incomplete formation
or weakening of the cartilaginous rings of the trachea resulting in
flattening of the trachea. It can be congenital or acquired, and
extrathoracic or intrathoracic (inside or outside the thoracic cavity).
Tracheal collapse is a dynamic condition. Collapse of the cervical
trachea or extrathoracic (in the neck) occurs during inspiration;
collapse of the thoracic trachea or intrathoracic (in the chest) occurs
during expiration. Tracheal collapse is most commonly found in small
dog breeds, including the Chihuahua, Pomeranian, Toy Poodle, Shih Tzu,
Lhasa Apso, Maltese, Pug, and Yorkshire Terrier.
Congenital
tracheal collapse appears to be caused by a deficiency of normal
components of tracheal ring cartilage like glycosaminoglycans,
glycoproteins, calcium, and chondroitin. Acquired tracheal collapse can
be caused by Cushing's syndrome, heart disease, and chronic respiratory
disease and infection.
Symptoms include a cough
(often called a "goose honk cough" due to its sound), especially when
the dog is excited. This cough is usually paroxysmal in nature. Other
symptoms include exercise intolerance, respiratory distress, and gagging
while eating or drinking. Tracheal collapse is easily seen on a
radiograph as a narrowing of the tracheal lumen. Treatment for mild to
moderate cases include corticosteroids, bronchodilators, and
antitussives. Medical treatment is successful in about 70 percent of
tracheal collapse cases. Severe cases can be treated with surgical
implantation of a tracheal stent (inside or outside of the trachea) or
prosthetic rings. Extraluminal (outside the trachea) stenting is
generally used only for tracheal collapse in the neck region.
Intraluminal stenting has shown more promise for success with
intrathoracic cases, especially using nitinol, a type of shape memory
alloy composed of nickel and titanium. Potential problems include stent
migration and fracture.
Tracheal collapse has also
been described in horses, both as a congenital condition and as a result
of trauma. It is most commonly seen in the cervical trachea.
--------------------------------------------
Cushing's syndrome
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushing%27s_syndrome
Cushing's
syndrome is the collection of signs and symptoms due to prolonged
exposure to glucocorticoids such as cortisol. Signs and
symptoms may include high blood pressure, abdominal obesity but with
thin arms and legs, reddish stretch marks, a round red face, a fat lump
between the shoulders, weak muscles, weak bones, acne, and fragile skin
that heals poorly. Women may have more hair and irregular
menstruation. Occasionally there may be changes in mood, headaches,
and a chronic feeling of tiredness.
Cushing's
syndrome is caused by either excessive cortisol-like medication such as
prednisone or a tumor that either produces or results in the production
of excessive cortisol by the adrenal glands. Cases due to a
pituitary adenoma are known as Cushing's disease, which is the second
most common cause of Cushing's syndrome after medication. A number of
other tumors may also cause Cushing's. Some of these are
associated with inherited disorders such as multiple endocrine neoplasia
type 1 and Carney complex. Diagnosis requires a number of steps.
The first step is to check the medications a person takes. The second
step is to measure levels of cortisol in the urine, saliva or in the
blood after taking dexamethasone. If this test is abnormal, the
cortisol may be measured late at night. If the cortisol remains high,
a blood test for ACTH may be done.
Most cases can
be treated and cured. If due to medications, these can often be
slowly decreased if still required or slowly stopped. If caused
by a tumor, it may be treated by a combination of surgery, chemotherapy,
and/or radiation. If the pituitary was affected, other medications
may be required to replace its lost function. With treatment, life
expectancy is usually normal. Some, in whom surgery is unable to
remove the entire tumor, have an increased risk of death.
About
two to three people per million are affected each year. It most
commonly affects people who are 20 to 50 years of age. Women are
affected three times more often than men. A mild degree of
overproduction of cortisol without obvious symptoms, however, is more
common. Cushing's syndrome was first described by American
neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing in 1932. Cushing's syndrome may also
occur in other animals including cats, dogs, and horses.
--------------------------------------------
Pattern
of Lipid Abnormalities Among South Asian Indians With Cushing's
Syndrome and the Short Term Impact of Surgical Correction of
Hypercortisolism.
2019
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31071735
Abstract
Atherosclerotic
cardiovascular events are one of the common causes of mortality in
patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS). Atherogenic dyslipidemia is more
common among South Asian Indians as compared to other ethnicities and is
likely to worsen among patients with CS. This retrospective study was
done over 5 years at a single institute to evaluate the pattern of lipid
abnormalities in subjects with CS and the changes in lipid parameters
after surgical control of hypercortisolemia. The study was done in two
parts. In the first part, records of patients with CS diagnosed over 3
years were retrospectively reviewed. Hormonal and metabolic parameters
including fasting plasma glucose (FPG), post prandial plasma glucose
(PPPG), HbA1c, serum lipids, serum cortisol and plasma ACTH were
recorded. In the second part, lipid parameters were rechecked among
patients who underwent surgery and a median follow up of 4±2 months
after remission. Out of the 126 patients diagnosed with endogenous CS
over 3 years, 100 patients were eligible for inclusion in the study. At
baseline, sixty five (65%) patients had dyslipidemia as defined by the
NCEP-ATPIII criteria. 47 out of 63 (74.6%) subjects achieved remission
after surgical management of CS. 32 (68.1%) of these patients had
dyslipidemia prior to surgery. After excluding 1 death, 26 of 46 (56.5%)
subjects had dyslipidemia after the follow up period. Lipid
abnormalities are common among South Asian Indian subjects with
endogenous CS and the pattern persists in most of them, 3 months after
surgical correction of hypercortisolism.
---------------------------------------------
Why Are Thyroid Cancer Rates So High in Southeast Asian Women Living in the United States? The Bay Area Thyroid Cancer Study
February 2003
https://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/12/2/144
---------------------------------------------
Large toxic multinodular goiter found in Asian woman with type 2 diabetes
June 2014
https://www.healio.com/endocrinology/neuroendocrinology/news/print/endocrine-today/%7B4c86da15-bbd9-48dd-8bea-59ae27c862bb%7D/large-toxic-multinodular-goiter-found-in-asian-woman-with-type-2-diabetes
----------------------------------------------
Technique and outcome of autotransplanting thyroid tissue after total thyroidectomy for simple multinodular goiters.
2017
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26337375
----------------------------------------------
Untreated Goiters Larger at Surgery in Men, Minorities, and the Old
2016
https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/860299
Significant
disparities exist in the presentation and outcomes of patients with
goiters in the United States, with minority ethnic groups, men, and
older patients more likely to present with untreated goiters that have
become so large they extend into the chest, meaning they are more
difficult to remove, a nationally representative analysis shows.
----------------------------------------------
Evaluation of Serum Hepatocellular Enzymes in Nigerian with Goitre
https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/AJMS/article/view/3870
----------------------------------------------
Goiter Prevalence in Children in North India Region
https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/goiter-prevalence-in-children-in-north-india-region.pdf
There
is a significant association between the age of school children and
prevalence of goiter. In addition the preva-lence among girls was
more than boys. The observed result is almost consistent with earlier
observations Conclusion:In the summary that the present data
showed that the prev-alence of the goiter in the age group of the 5-13
in the rural area of the north India. This indicated that the
presence of the Iodine in the salt & the food is less.
So the action needs to be taken to control such situations. Also it
shows that there is need to implement the ban on the non iodized salt in
the area. Also the efforts must be taken to improve awareness
regarding the use of Iodized salt to avoid the Goiter.
----------------------------------------------
Japan’s iodine status – too high or just right?
https://www.ign.org/newsletter/idd_aug15_japan.pdf
‘Endemic
coast goiter’ and iodine nutritionThe misconception that most Japanese
con-sume too much iodine may have its roots in several early studies in
the coastal area of Hokkaido. In 1933, Jesse F McClendon of the
University of Minnesota reported that Japan was the only non-goitrous
country in the world, with one case of goiter per million people.
The northern island of Hokkaido was an apparent exception, where cases
of endemic goiter could be traced back to 1899. But when later
surveys, con-ducted between 1948 and 1952, reported goiter throughout
Japan (with goiter rates in children ranging from 0.9% to 20.6% across
11 of 46 prefectures), they went lar-gely unnoticed by the international
scientific community.
-----------------------------------------------
Total Thyroidectomy: The Procedure of Choice for Toxic Goitre
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82353036.pdf
----------------------------------------------
Role
of Goiter and of Menstrual and Reproductive Factors in Thyroid Cancer:A
Population-based Case-Control Study in New Caledonia (South Pacific), a
Very High Incidence Area
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15901626
-----------------------------------------------
Multinodular goiter: A study of malignancy risk in nondominant nodules
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/014556131709600821
---------------------------------------------
Thyroid Disease in Dogs
2018
https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/health/thyroid-disease-in-dogs/
Some
breeds do appear to be at greater risk of developing hypothyroidism
than others. Medium-to-large-size breeds are more likely to develop the
disease than toy and miniature breeds, and the Cocker Spaniel, Miniature
Schnauzer, Dachshund, Doberman Pinscher, Golden Retriever, Airedale
Terrier, and Irish Setter appear to be predisposed to developing the
condition.
----------------------------------------------
Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
Also
called Hashimoto's disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis is an autoimmune
disease, a disorder in which the immune system turns against the body's
own tissues. In people with Hashimoto's, the immune system attacks the
thyroid. This can lead to hypothyroidism, a condition in which the
thyroid does not make enough hormones for the body's needs.
https://www.webmd.com/women/hashimotos-thyroiditis-symptoms-causes-treatments#1
------------------------------------------------
Hashimoto's Thyroiditis: From Genes to the Disease
2011
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3271310/
-------------------------------------------------
IgG4-related fibrous variant of Hashimoto thyroiditis in a non-Asian woman
2017
https://www.endocrine-abstracts.org/ea/0049/ea0049gp213
-------------------------------------------------
Immunogenetics of Hashimoto's thyroiditis
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC555850/
-------------------------------------------------
Variation in Rates of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease by Race/Ethnicity in US Military Personnel
2014
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1860451
Results
The
DMSS recorded 20 270 688 person-years of eligible active-duty service
during the study period (85.8% male). There were 1378 cases of Graves
disease in women and 1388 cases in men and 758 cases of Hashimoto
thyroiditis in women and 548 cases in men (Table).
Compared
with whites, the IRR for Graves disease was significantly elevated in
black women (IRR, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.56-2.37) and men (IRR, 2.53; 95% CI,
2.01-3.18) and Asian/Pacific Islander women (IRR, 1.78; 95% CI,
1.20-2.66) and men (IRR, 3.36; 95% CI, 2.57-4.40) (Figure). In contrast,
Hashimoto thyroiditis incidence was highest in whites and lowest in
black women (IRR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.21-0.51) and men (IRR, 0.22; 95% CI,
0.11-0.47) and Asian/Pacific Islander women (IRR, 0.31; 95% CI,
0.17-0.56) and men (IRR, 0.23; 95% CI, 0.07-0.72) (Figure).
Discussion
To
our knowledge, this is the first report to identify that Graves disease
is more common in blacks and Asian/Pacific Islanders compared with
whites. In contrast, the relationship between Hashimoto thyroiditis and
race is well known,1,2 and is confirmed by our results.
The
differences in incidence by race/ethnicity may be due to different
environmental exposures, genetics, or a combination of both. Our results
are not easily attributable to the strongest known environmental risk
factor, cigarette smoking.
Smoking is associated with
an increased risk for Graves disease and a decreased risk of Hashimoto
thyroiditis.4,5 Whites have the highest smoking rates in the US
military. However, whites had higher rates of Hashimoto thyroiditis and
lower rates of Graves disease.
Our data set presumes
accurate coding; it is possible that some cases of Hashimoto thyroiditis
causing hypothyroidism were coded as unspecified-acquired
hypothyroidism and not Hashimoto thyroiditis. The military population
may also tend to have lower Hashimoto thyroiditis estimates because it
is younger than the general population and has higher smoking
prevalence.
Another potential limitation is the
misclassification of prevalent cases as incident cases, although this is
unlikely to be important because diagnosis during the teenage years is
rare. We also cannot rule out military-specific exposures affecting the
pattern of autoimmune thyroid disease, which could limit the
generalizability of our findings.
-----------------------------------------------
Treatment for Graves’ disease focuses on controlling overactive thyroid
2019
https://www.sun-sentinel.com/florida-jewish-journal/fl-jj-treatment-graves-disease-controlling-overactive-thyroid-20190213-story.html
----------------------------------------------
Genetics of Thyroid Function and Disease
2011
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3219766/
----------------------------------------------
Unit 731
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731
Unit
731, also referred to
as Detachment 731, the 731 Regiment, Manshu Detachment 731, The Kamo
Detachment:198 Ishii Unit, Ishii Detachment or the Ishii
Company, was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and
development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal
human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) of
World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war
crimes carried out by Imperial Japan. Unit 731 was based at the Pingfang
district of Harbin, the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of
Manchukuo (now Northeast China), and had active branch offices
throughout China and Southeast Asia.
Its parent
program was officially known as the Epidemic Prevention and Water
Purification Department of the Kwantung Army. Originally set up under the Kempeitai military police
of the Empire of Japan, Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the
end of the war by General ShirĆ Ishii, a combat medic officer in the
Kwantung Army. The facility itself was built in 1935 as a replacement
for the Zhongma Fortress, and to expand the capabilities for Ishii and
his team. The program received generous support from the Japanese
government up to the end of the war in 1945.
Unit 731 and the
other Units of the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification
Department" were biological weapon production, testing, deployment and
storage facilities. They routinely tested on human beings (who were
referred to internally as "logs"). Additionally, the biological weapons
were tested in the field on cities and towns in China. Estimates of
those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a
million people.
-----------------------------------------------
Extrinsic Factors Influencing Fetal Deformations and Intrauterine Growth Restriction
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jp/2012/750485/
-----------------------------------------------
Dog and Cat Nose Bleeds: Epistaxis
http://www.pethealthnetwork.com/dog-health/dog-diseases-conditions-a-z/dog-and-cat-nose-bleeds-epistaxis
There are several causes of epistaxis
Trauma
Clotting abnormalities (e.g., von Willebrand’s disease, hemophilia, or disseminated intravascular coagulation)
Platelet problems
Cancer (e.g., nasal adenocarcinoma)
Benign tumors (e.g., polyps)
Foreign bodies (e.g., sticks, plant material, etc.)
Infections (e.g., parasites, fungal, tick-born, or bacterial causes)
Dental disease (e.g., tooth root abscesses)
Vasculitis
-----------------------------------------------
Is admission for epistaxis more common in Caucasian than in Asian people? A preliminary study.
2006
OBJECTIVES:
Epistaxis
is a common ENT complaint. Although casual observation suggested that
it is more common in Caucasian, compared with Asian people, a literature
search failed to find any studies investigating ethnicity and
epistaxis. The aim of this study was to identify any differences in
emergency admission rates for epistaxis between Asian and Caucasian
people.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17014447
-----------------------------------------------
Impact of sex, age, race, ethnicity, and aspirin use on bleeding symptoms in healthy adults
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3017649/
----------------------------------------------
Racial and Ethnic Differences in Self-Reported Periodontal Disease in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4970861/
----------------------------------------------
Dental Health Is Worse in Communities of Color
May 12, 2016
Four key disparities show how these populations are vulnerable
Dental
care is one of the nation’s greatest unmet health needs. In
particular, communities of color have much higher rates of tooth decay
and tooth loss and fewer dental visits and preventive treatments than
white populations. Economic hardship also negatively affects access to
dental care for many people of color. Although more research is needed
to understand and address the factors that contribute to dental health
disparities, significant evidence shows that communities of color face
real problems and indicates that the nation’s dental care delivery
system is failing to adequately support the oral health of all
Americans.
Children of color are less likely than white children to see a dentist and receive preventive care
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2016/05/12/dental-health-is-worse-in-communities-of-color
----------------------------------------------
Oral health-related cultural beliefs for four racial/ethnic groups: Assessment of the literature
https://bmcoralhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6831-8-26
----------------------------------------------
The Impact of Socioeconomic Status and Race-Ethnicity on Dental Health
2007
https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/sop.2007.50.1.7?seq=1
-----------------------------------------------
Racial
Differences in Periodontal Disease and 10-Year Self-Reported Tooth Loss
among Late Middle-Aged and Older Adults: The Dental ARIC Study
2017
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5718983/
----------------------------------------------
Racial And Ethnic Disparities In Dental Care For Publicly Insured Children
Abstract
Poor
oral health has important implications for the healthy development of
children. Children in Medicaid, especially Latinos and African
Americans, experience high rates of tooth decay, yet they visit dentists
less often than privately insured children. Even Latino and African
American children with private insurance are less likely than white
children to visit dentists and have longer intervals between dental
visits. Furthermore, Latino and African American children in Medicaid
are more likely than white children in Medicaid to have longer intervals
between visits. These findings raise concerns about Medicaid’s ability
to address disparities in dental care access and, more broadly, in
health care.
https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/full/10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0089
-----------------------------------------------
{Could
the reason why Mexicans have higher tooth decay is that they live in
third world conditions, and they have a brachycephalic skull. It is important that we research human skulls and find the reason why Mexicans have a lower IQ and more teeth problems}.
----------------------------------------------
CDC: Half of American Adults Have Periodontal Disease
Data
from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show high
prevalence of periodontal disease in the U.S. population; American
Academy of Periodontology encourages yearly comprehensive periodontal
evaluations to assess for disease.
CHICAGO—September 4,
2012—One out of every two American adults aged 30 and over has
periodontal disease, according to recent findings from the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). A study titled Prevalence of
Periodontitis in Adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010 estimates
that 47.2 percent, or 64.7 million American adults, have mild, moderate
or severe periodontitis, the more advanced form of periodontal disease.
In adults 65 and older, prevalence rates increase to 70.1 percent. This
study is published in the Journal of Dental Research, the official
publication of the International and American Associations for Dental
Research.
The findings also indicate disparities among
certain segments of the U.S. population. Periodontal disease is higher
in men than women (56.4 percent vs. 38.4 percent) and is highest in
Mexican-Americans (66.7 percent) compared to other races. Other segments
with high prevalence rates include current smokers (64.2 percent);
those living below the federal poverty level (65.4 percent); and those
with less than a high school education (66.9 percent).
https://www.perio.org/consumer/cdc-study.htm
----------------------------------------------
Britons
have poor dental health… or so goes the stereotype. Is that old adage
as false as a set of dentures? Claudia Hammond investigates.
2015
British children have fewer decayed, missing or filled teeth than those in France, Spain – or the US
https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20150602-do-the-british-have-bad-teeth
----------------------------------------------
Color/race inequalities in oral health among Brazilian adolescents
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1415-790X2009000300003
---------------------------------------------
Racial and ethnic variations in preventive dental care utilization among middle-aged and older Americans, 1999–2008
Dec 2013
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2013.00065/full
---------------------------------------------
Gum disease and heart disease: The common thread
March, 2018
https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/gum-disease-and-heart-disease-the-common-thread
--------------------------------------------
Heart Disease in African-American Women
https://www.goredforwomen.org/en/about-heart-disease-in-women/facts/heart-disease-in-african-american-women
Heart
disease and stroke is the No. 1 killer in women, and stroke
disproportionately affects African-Americans. Importantly,
African-American women are less likely than Caucasian women to be aware
that heart disease is the leading cause of death.
Diabetes,
smoking, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, physical
inactivity, obesity and a family history of heart disease are all
greatly prevalent among African-Americans and are major risk factors for
heart disease and stroke. What’s more, African-American women have
almost two times the risk of stroke than Caucasians, and more likely to
die at an earlier age when compared to women of other ethnicities.
---------------------------------------------
Human ancestors had the same dental problems as us – even without fizzy drinks and sweets
https://theconversation.com/human-ancestors-had-the-same-dental-problems-as-us-even-without-fizzy-drinks-and-sweets-92546
---------------------------------------------
Novel contributions in canine craniometry: Anatomic and radiographic measurements in newborn puppies
2018
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5940217/
---------------------------------
The Genetics of Canine Skull Shape Variation
https://www.genetics.org/content/193/2/317
---------------------------------
Understanding periodontal disease in dogs
https://animalwellnessmagazine.com/dog-prone-to-periodontal-disease/
Periodontal disease is common in all dogs, but factors such as breed and mouth conformation make some pooches more susceptible.
Periodontal disease is one of the top conditions veterinarians see in dogs. It affects not only the teeth and gums (gingiva) but the supportive structures that keep the teeth in place (such as the periodontal ligament or alveolar bone). Although all dogs are at risk for dental issues, some are more prone than others, depending on their breed, genes, the shape of their mouths, and even how much (or not) they chew their food.
-----------------------------------
Great expectations, inconvenient truths, and the paradoxes of the dog-owner relationship for owners of brachycephalic dogs
2019
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6641206/
----------------------------
Health Concerns of Brachycephalic Pets
https://www.mallardcreekvet.com/dr-waldens-blog/health-concerns-of-brachycephalic-pets
Impaired breathing
Many brachycephalic animals cannot breathe normally. Although the bones of the face are shortened, the soft tissues are not, leaving excess tissue that can block the airway. Signs of impaired breathing include snoring, snorting, and exercise intolerance. Brachycephalic animals are at risk for heat stroke, respiratory distress, and collapse. Long-term labored breathing can also cause digestive tract problems like gagging and vomiting. Obesity makes all of these problems worse.
Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome includes 3 main anatomic abnormalities: narrow nostrils, elongated soft palate (excess tissue at the roof of the mouth), and everted laryngeal saccules (tissue that blocks airflow through the trachea, or windpipe). Some animals require surgery to correct these problems. Brachycephalic animals may also have an abnormally narrow trachea, which gives the effect of constantly breathing through a small straw.
Eye disease
Brachycephalic animals have shallow eye sockets and large eyelid openings, so their eyes are not as well protected as those of other animals. Many also have impaired tear production (dry eye), reducing their defense against eye irritants. Skin folds at the top of the nose may cause hair to rub against the eyes. These problems can cause eye ulcers and eventual blindness.
Reproductive problems
Some brachycephalic breeds have trouble giving birth naturally because the puppies’ heads are too large to fit through the mother’s pelvis. One study found that over 80% of English bulldog, French bulldog, and Boston terrier litters born in the United Kingdom were delivered by cesarean section.
Skin and dental disease
Folds of loose skin give bacteria and yeast a handy place to grow, so brachycephalic animals are prone to skin fold infections. Because of their shortened upper jaw, they often have crowded or maloccluded teeth.
----------------------------
The truth behind brachycephalic breeds - appearance over welfare?
8-1-2018
https://www.spca.nz/news-and-events/news-article/the-truth-behind-brachycephalic-breeds-appearance-over-welfare
----------------------------
Should pugs and bulldogs be banned? It might be the only way to stop the suffering
10-24-2017
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/pets/news-features/pug-bulldog-ban-could-way-stop-suffering/
----------------------------
Brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachycephalic_airway_obstructive_syndrome
----------------------------
Addressing Brachycephalic Ocular Syndrome in the Dog
https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/practical-techniques-from-the-navc-institute-addressing-brachycephalic-ocular-syndrome-in-the-dog-2/
---------------------------
We Are Breeding a World Full of Creatures That Cannot Survive
10-28-2017
https://futurism.com/breeding-world-creatures-cannot-survive
----------------------------
Selective Breeding Problems
9-16-2010
https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/dogs-that-changed-the-world-selective-breeding-problems/1281/
Skin problems
A skin allergy, atopic dermatitis, inflicts itchy, inflamed skin on as many as 15 percent of all dogs, but certain breeds are particularly susceptible. Dog breeds prone to atopic dermatitis include Dalmatians, Vizslas, and several terriers, such as the Boston Terrier, Bull Terrier, and the West Highland White Terrier. The numerous skin folds of a Chinese Shar-Pei, so valued by some breeders, can become breeding grounds for staphylococcus and other bacteria, which cause frequent skin infections. Also, excess wrinkles of skin on the face can rub on the eye, causing lesions and, potentially, blindness.
Immune system disease
In autoimmune disorders, an individual’s immune system, which normally works to fight off foreign invaders, launches a misguided attack against its own tissues and cells. A number of inherited diseases compromising the immune system have been noted in dogs, including primary severe combined immunodeficiency (a dog version of the “bubble boy” disease) among Basset hounds, Cardigan Welsh Corgis, and Dachshunds. Addison’s disease, an autoimmune disease that affects the hormone-producing adrenal glands, occurs more frequently among several particular breeds, including the Bearded Collie, Portuguese Water Dog, and Standard Poodles. Diabetes mellitus, an autoimmune disorder affecting the body’s response to sugars, shows up more frequently among Samoyeds and Australian Terrier dogs.
Blood disorders
Bassett Hounds are prone to an inherited abnormality the effects the ability of the platelets in the blood to clump together after an injury. The blood doesn’t clot properly, leading to hemorrhage and bruising. Clotting problems also plague dogs with von Willebrand’s disease, a genetic condition frequent in Doberman Pinschers.
Neurological, behavioral, and sensory
Neurological and behavioral problems afflict many pure breeds. Bull Terriers, for example, often compulsively chase their tails. Pugs are be predisposed to Pug Dog encephalitis, a fatal brain disease. Scottish Terriers are affected by Scottie Cramp, a disorder that causes the dogs to lose muscle control when they get excited. German Shepherds may inherit degenerative myelopathy, a crippling spinal cord disease that causes weakness and eventually paralysis.
Hearing and vision
Hereditary hearing loss is common in Dalmatians, Australian Cattle Dogs, and English Setters. Alaskan Malamutes, Siberian Huskies, Samoyeds, Bichon Frise, and more than 60 other purebred dogs suffer from inherited forms of cataracts, while progressive retinal atrophy, a common cause of blindness in purebreds, is particularly a problem in Old English Sheepdogs and Papillons.
Heart disease
Sudden death from cardiac disease is recurrent in several dog breeds, including Doberman Pinschers, Great Danes, Irish Wolfhounds, and German Shepherds. Boxers can be genetically predisposed to an irregular heartbeat. High blood pressure afflicts many small breeds including Poodles, Cocker Spaniels, Staffordshire terriers, among others.
Other organs and systems
Low thyroid function crops up most frequently in Alaskan Malamutes, English Setters, Golden Retrievers, Keeshonds, Samoyeds, and Siberian Huskies. Gastric torsion, or bloat, a potentially life-threatening inability to expel gas from the digestive system, is common among deep-chested breeds such as the Great Dane, Doberman, and German Shepherd. An inherited form of kidney disease affects English Cocker Spaniels, while Dalmatians are prone to kidney stones and Basenjis suffer from Fanconi Syndrome, a potentially fatal inherited disease in which the kidneys fail to reabsorb nutrients. Liver damage and cirrhosis are common in Bedlington Terriers because of an inherited condition called copper toxicosis, in which high levels of copper accumulate in the liver.
Cancer
Cancers are strongly influenced by genetics, and so it is not surprising to find various types of cancer among different dog breeds. For example, bone cancer, or osteosarcoma, is considerably more frequent among large and giant breeds of dogs, such as the Irish Wolfhound, Great Dane, Rottweiler, Labrador and Golden Retriever, Greyhound, and Saint Bernard, because their bones are stressed by carrying so much weight. High rates of malignant blood vessel tumors are seen among Golden Retrievers, which are also prone to leukemia and brain tumors. German Shepherd Dogs and Chow Chows are predisposed to gastric cancer, while Scottish Terriers are 18 times more likely to develop bladder cancer than are other breeds.
In the same way that inbreeding among human populations can increase the frequency of normally rare genes that cause diseases, the selective breeding that created the hundreds of modern dog breeds has put purebred dogs at risk for a large number of health problems, affecting both body and behavior.
Some conditions are directly related to the features breeders have sought to perpetuate among their dogs. As they deliberately manipulated the appearance of dogs to create or accentuate physical characteristics that were considered aesthetically pleasing, like the flat face of a bulldog or low-slung eyelids of a Bloodhound, breeders also created physical disabilities. The excessively wrinkled skin of the Chinese Shar-Pei causes frequent skin infection; Bulldogs and other flat-faced (or brachycephalic) breeds such as the Pekingese have breathing problems because of their set-back noses and shortened air passages; Bloodhounds suffer chronic eye irritation and infection.
The unnaturally large and small sizes of other breeds encourage different problems. For example, toy and miniature breeds often suffer from dislocating kneecaps and heart problems are more common among small dogs. Giant dogs such as Mastiffs, Saint Bernards, and Great Danes are nearly too big for their own good. Researchers have found a striking correlation between a dog’s large size and a frequency of orthopedic problems like hip dysplasia. Large dogs are often prone to heat prostration because they can’t cool down their bodies (tiny dogs, by contrast, have a hard time staying warm), and because of the massive weight they must support, these breeds are prone to malignant bone tumors in their legs. Meanwhile, the huge head and narrow hips of the Bulldog can necessitate that their pups must be born by Caesarean section.
Other health problems among purebreds are the product of both inbreeding and bad genetic luck. The genes responsible for many genetic diseases are “recessive,” which means that two copies of a damaged gene, one from the mother and one from the father, must be present in an individual for the disease to occur. Individuals that carry only one copy of the disease gene don’t have the condition, and are carriers of the disease. Normally, because disease genes are relatively rare, it is unlikely that both the mother and the father will be carriers, and even less likely that they’ll both give the disease gene to their offspring. But that’s not the case for purebred dog breeds, where genetically similar individuals are intentionally mated, increasing the concentration of disease genes. It’s like stacking a deck of cards with ten extra aces and ten extra face cards; the loaded deck increases your chance of hitting blackjack in a game of 21-but what you “win” might be allergies or a predisposition to cancer.
Bloodhounds suffer chronic eye irritation and infection
---------------------------
THE COST OF CUTENESS
Health and Welfare Issues Associated with
Brachycephalic Dog Breeds
https://www.hsvma.org/brachycephalic
---------------------------
Frenchie Breathing Problems Run Deeper Than Smushed Faces
May 16, 2019
French bulldogs are one of several breeds with a genetic mutation that can increase their risk of a disease called obstructive airway syndrome.
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/frenchie-breathing-problems-run-deeper-than-smushed-faces
----------------------------
Pugs are anatomical disasters. Vets must speak out – even if it’s bad for business
2016
Owners must be told some breeds are born to a lifetime of suffering, even if it means upsetting clients and putting livelihoods on the line
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/sep/22/pugs-anatomical-disasters-vets-must-speak-out-even-bad-business
----------------------------
Pugs and bulldogs living miserable lives because of reckless breeding, vets say
13 Mar 2017
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-13/pugs-bulldogs-living-short-miserable-lives-veterinarians-say/8348686
-----------------------------
'This is a calamity': the surgeons keeping pugs and bulldogs alive
2019
https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/feb/27/this-is-a-calamity-the-surgeons-keeping-pugs-and-bulldogs-alive
-----------------------------
Bulldogs Are Genetic Monstrosities, DNA Study Finds
Jul 30 2016
Bulldogs are abominations of nature, and it’s definitely our fault.
https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/yp35mx/bulldogs-are-genetic-monstrosities-dna-study-finds
-----------------------------
Brachycephalic Airway Obstruction Syndrome in Flat-Faced Dogs
2001
https://veterinarypartner.vin.com/default.aspx?pid=19239&id=4951534
----------------------------
Glottic and skull indices in canine brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome
2014
https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1746-6148-10-12
----------------------------
Effect of brachycephalic, mesaticephalic, and dolichocephalic head conformations on olfactory bulb angle and orientation in dogs as determined by use of in vivo magnetic resonance imaging
2012
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228080398_Effect_of_brachycephalic_mesaticephalic_and_dolichocephalic_head_conformations_on_olfactory_bulb_angle_and_orientation_in_dogs_as_determined_by_use_of_in_vivo_magnetic_resonance_imaging
----------------------------
An ADAMTS3 missense variant is associated with Norwich Terrier upper airway syndrome
https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1008102
----------------------------
Anaesthesia of brachycephalic dogs
2018
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jsap.12948
----------------------------
Brachycephaly-related diseases
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321107065_Brachycephaly-related_diseases
----------------------------
Feline asthma
Feline
asthma is a common allergic respiratory disease in cats, affecting at
least one percent of all adult cats worldwide. It is a chronic
progressive disease for which there is no cure. Common symptoms include
wheezing, coughing, labored breathing and potentially life-threatening
bronchoconstriction. There is conjecture that the disease is becoming
more common due to increased exposure to industrial pollutants.
At risk
Studies
show that cats between the ages of two and eight years have the
greatest risk of developing a respiratory disease. Siamese and Himalayan
breeds and breed mixes seem to be most prone to asthma. Some studies
also indicate that more female cats seem to be affected by asthma than
male cats.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feline_asthma
------------------------------
THE ETHICS OF BREEDING FOR DEFORMITY: EXTREME BRACHYCEPHALY
http://messybeast.com/brachycephaly.htm
-----------------------------
Urgent call by vet profession to stop the suffering of brachycephalic dogs and cats
May 9th 2016
https://vethelpdirect.com/vetblog/2016/05/09/vets-to-end-suffering-of-brachycephalic-dogs/
------------------------------
Skull variation in Dinaric-Balkan and Carpathian gray wolf populations revealed by geometric morphometric approaches
4-16-2010
https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/91/2/376/900808
------------------------------
Long Face Dog – And Fascinating Facts About Dog Head Shape
2017
https://thehappypuppysite.com/long-face-dog/
-----------------------------
-----------------------------
(The following chapter will explain in detail about the current steady decline in the biological human race.
We start in the dysgenic traits found
in many species of animals that have regressed over the course of many
years. New recent studies have shown that many of these brachycephalic
traits found in certain species of animals have been classified as a
form of biological decline in a biological species.
This new breakthrough study will show
the dysgenic devolution found in many species of animals, primates and
even different classes and races of people. With this report, science
will now come closer than ever to finding the lineage of mankind. We
will start with dysgenic degenerate brachycephalic conditions found in
racial ethnic populations of Negros, Orientals, Jews and Hispanics}.
---------------------------
| Bostons are brachycephalic breeds. —Boston Terrier |
| They were described as tall, heavy boned and brachycephalic. —Beaker culture |
| The head is broad, massive, square, and powerful brachycephalic shape. —Perro de Presa Canario |
| A typical Alpine skull is therefore regarded as brachycephalic ('broad-headed'). —Alpine race |
| Brachycephalic dogs such as Boxers and Boston Terriers are most commonly affected. —Cleft lip and cleft palate |
| It is seen in brachycephalic (short-nosed) dog breeds because of the shallow orbit. —Exophthalmos |
| The modern brachycephalic Persian has a large rounded skull and shortened face and nose. —Persian cat |
| The Japanese Chin's flattened brachycephalic face can lead to breathing and eye problems. —Japanese Chin |
| It is commonly seen in Boxer dogs and other brachycephalic breeds, and in the English Springer Spaniel. —Gingival enlargement |
| The long, broad, flat head of the Alaunt should never be confused with the modified brachycephalic breeds. —Alaunt |
| Brachycephalic syndrome is a common problem and mostly affects dogs with short noses (brachycephalic breeds). —Shih Tzu |
| A typical brachycephalic molossoid type breed, the Bordeaux is a very powerful dog, with a very muscular body. —Dogue de Bordeaux |
| Like all brachycephalic, or "short faced", breeds, Bulldogs can easily become overheated and even die from hyperthermia. —Bulldog |
| Several air carriers embargo certain dog breeds, due to the effect of high temperature and humidity on brachycephalic animals. —Pit bull |
| Human populations were characterized as either dolichocephalic (long headed), mesaticephalic (moderate headed), or brachycephalic (short headed). —Cephalic index |
| Following the deaths of Pugs and other brachycephalic breeds, several airlines either banned their transport in cargo or enacted seasonal restrictions. —Pug |
| Wolves and other wild dogs are dolichocephalic or mesaticephalic, but some domesticated dogs have become brachycephalic (short-headed) due to artificial selection by humans over the course of 12,000 years. —Sighthound |
| ...however, puggles can occasionally have the respiratory ailments commonly found in Pugs (a breed known for being brachycephalic). —Puggle |
| ...long and thin (dolichocephalic), as in the Rough Collie, to nearly nonexistent because it is so flat (extreme brachycephalic), as in the Pug. —Snout |
| ...backwards sneezing or inspiratory paroxysmal respiration) is a phenomenon observed in dogs, particularly in those with brachycephalic skulls. —Reverse sneezing |
| Boxers are brachycephalic (they have broad, short skulls), have a square muzzle, mandibular prognathism (an underbite), very strong jaws, and a... —Boxer (dog) |
| ...populations have been characterized as either dolichocephalic (long headed), mesaticephalic (moderate headed), or brachycephalic (short headed). —Brachycephaly |
| As they are a brachycephalic breed (see Brachycephalic syndrome), French Bulldogs are banned by several commercial airlines due to the numbers that have died while in the... —French Bulldog |
| Other differences in head shape between brachycephalic and dolichocephalic dogs include changes in the craniofacial angle (angle between the basilar axis and hard palate) (... —Dog anatomy |
| ...tint to an olive shade, with black and coarse hair with a circular cross section, an absent or scanty beard, a brachycephalic skull, prominent cheek bones and a broad face. —Mongoloid |
| Other differences in head shape between brachycephalic and dolichocephalic dogs include changes in the craniofacial angle (angle between the basilar axis and hard palate) (... —Evolution of the wolf |
| ...Aryan and his Social Role", in which he claimed that the white, "Aryan race", "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype. —Racism |
-----------------------
How the Asian face got its unique characteristics
https://www.scmp.com/infographics/article/2100532/how-asian-face-got-its-unique-characteristics
{One theory is that Orientals have larger skulls, and that part of their heads are flatter to
accommodate a larger skull. The reason why Orientals have bigger heads is that Orientals are actually part Denisovan}.
-------------
What makes Asian eyes look different?
https://eyemd.wordpress.com/2006/09/01/what-makes-asian-eyes-look-different/
-----------
ELI5:
How did humans in Asia evolve to have narrower eyes, why did Africans
skin stay black while Arabic and European peoples became lighter?
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1kqquy/eli5_how_did_humans_in_asia_evolve_to_have/
-----------
Images of 20 Chinese women before and after plastic surgery draw eyes online
http://shanghaiist.com/2014/11/10/20-women-before-after-plastic-surgery/
-----------
ORIGIN OF SHAPE OF ASIAN EYES IS STILL A MYSTERY TO SCIENTISTS
https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1985-10-13-8503100141-story.html
-----------
Epicanthic fold
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicanthic_fold
Medical conditions
The
epicanthic fold is sometimes found as a congenital abnormality. Medical
conditions that cause the nasal bridge not to mature and project are
associated with epicanthic folds. About 60% of individuals with Down
syndrome (also known as trisomy 21) have prominent epicanthic folds. In
1862, John Langdon Down classified what is now called Down syndrome. He
used the term mongoloid for the condition. This was derived from
then-prevailing ethnic theory and from his perception that children
with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities (epicanthic
folds) with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race. While the term
"mongoloid" (also "mongol" or "mongoloid idiot") continued to be used
until the early 1970s, it is now considered pejorative and inaccurate
and is no longer in common use about medical conditions.
In
Zellweger syndrome, epicanthic folds are prominent. Other examples are
fetal alcohol syndrome, phenylketonuria, and Turner syndrome.
Possible evolutionary function
The epicanthic fold is often associated with greater levels of fat
deposition around the eyeball, a feature most accentuated in native
North Siberian, Aleut and Inuit populations. The adipose tissue is
thought to provide greater insulation for the eye and sinuses from the
effects of cold, especially from freezing winds, and to represent an
adaptation to cold climates. It has also been postulated that the fold
itself might provide a level of protection from snow blindness. Though
its appearance in peoples of Southeast Asia can be linked to possible
descent from cold-adapted ancestors, its occurrence in various African
peoples precludes a cold-adaptive explanation for it appearing in the
latter groups. The epicanthic fold found in some African people has been
tentatively linked to protection for the eye from the high levels of
ultra-violet light found in desert and semi-desert areas.
Age
Many fetuses lose their epicanthic folds after three to six months of
gestation. Epicanthic folds may be visible in the development stages of
young children of any race, especially before the nose bridge fully
develops.
---------------
Massive rise in Asian eye damage
4 May 2012
https://www.bbc.com/news/health-17942181
Up to 90% of school leavers in major Asian cities are suffering from myopia - short-sightedness - a study suggests.
Researchers say the "extraordinary rise" in the problem is being caused by students working very hard in school and missing out on outdoor light.
The scientists told the Lancet that up to one in five of these students could experience severe visual impairment and even blindness.
--------------------------------------
Characteristic ocular findings in Asian children with Down syndrome
November 2002
https://www.nature.com/articles/6700208
--------------------------------------
Neutral non offensive alternative to “slanting eyes”
https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/321685/neutral-non-offensive-alternative-to-slanting-eyes
--------------------------------------
The Evolution of Looks and Expectations of Asian Eyelid and Eye Appearance
2015
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536060/
---------------------------------------
Caucasians and Asians don't examine faces in the same way
2010
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100126111953.htm
----------------------------------------
13 Asians On Identity And The Struggle Of Loving Their Eyes
2017
“I used to use Scotch tape to make my eyes bigger. Then I said, ‘Hey, this is your face. This is how you look.’”
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/asian-american-eyes-photos_n_59f79448e4b0aec1467a3270
---------------------------------------
Palpebral slant - eye
The palpebral slant is the direction of the slant of a line that goes from the outer corner of the eye to the inner corner.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003316.htm
----------------------------------------
Slant eye
https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=slant%20eye
----------------------------------------
Slanty eyes
https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=slanty%20eyes
-----------------------------------------
Why do people have different eye shapes?
https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/why-do-people-have-different-eye-shapes/
-----------------------------------------
What was the evolutionary advantage of the slanted eye shape for asians?
https://www.reddit.com/r/AskAnthropology/comments/ar9krp/what_was_the_evolutionary_advantage_of_the/
-----------------------------------------
The Asian Eyelid: Relevant Anatomy
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536062/
------------------------------------------
Why Do Chinese People Have Slanted Eyes?
https://www.asymptotejournal.com/special-feature/amanda-lee-koe-why-do-chinese-people-have-slanted-eyes/
Professor of the Department of Biological Anthropology, speaking slowly at a Neo-Mongoloid Evolutionary Processes lecture. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America.
A matter of periocular anatomy. It isn't just the eyes per se we are talking about—there's the flatter nose, the lower-based nasal bridge, the higher amount of preaponeurotic fat in the epicanthic fold. More precisely, the orbital septum fuses to the levator aponeurosis at variable distances below the superior tarsal border, and there is no extension of the capsulopalpebral fascia.
By the by, to term it "Chinese" eyes isn't quite accurate, for the condition isn't unique to the Chinese, but a definitive racial trait of the Mongoloids—though the word is pejorative now, it was utilised in early ethnology and we still use it in academic formality; we mean no harm, but things move so slowly here. We're talking Siberian, North Mongoloid, Central Mongoloid, South Mongoloid, Indonesian, Polynesian, Eskimo, and Amerindian.
The epicanthic fold was one of several adaptations to the cold, the bitter conditions of the Mammoth steppe during the Middle Pleistocene, some 600,000 to 370,000 years ago. The others: short limbs, flat faces, short noses, lower surface to mass ratio, cyclical vasodilation, and vasoconstriction of the peripheral capillaries.
----------------------------------------
{The Chinese have slanted eyes because they are a Deniosvan subspecies that ended up having a bracycephalic deformity in their faces.
If Orientals eyes were to slant any further, Orientals simply would not be able to live as a species from too many eye and nasal problems being caused by this brachycephalic condition of degenerating with these slanted eyes. This is also why Asians have many vision problems and many are also bad drivers. The big question is why Asians eyes slanted more than other races. We all know part of the reason is that Orientals were a subspecies of Denisovans and possibly Homo erectus. Many question if Orientals faces deformed further with brachycephalic slanting of the eyes over a period of time with evolution, or if a larger head was inherited by Orientals from being part Denisovan}.
----------------------------------------
Asian eyelid morphologies are categorized into six types.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Asian-eyelid-morphologies-are-categorized-into-six-types-A-Single-eyelid-no-visible_fig1_281469924
Asian eyelid morphologies are categorized into six types. (A) Single eyelid (no visible lid crease). (B) Low eyelid crease (low-seated, nasally tapered, including hidden fold). (C) Double eyelid crease, infold type: the height of the upper lid crease is lower than the epicanthal fold. (D) Double eyelid crease, on fold type: the height of the crease is right on the epicanthal fold. (E) Double eyelid crease, outfold type: the height of the crease is higher than the epicanthal fold (asterisk). (F) Double eyelid crease, outfold type without an epicanthal fold.
------------------------------
East Asian Physical Traits Linked to 35,000-Year-Old Mutation
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/15/science/studying-recent-human-evolution-at-the-genetic-level.html
------------------------------
Evaluating hypercoagulability (abnormal blood coagulation that
increases the risk of blood clots) in dogs with brachycephalic airway
syndrome: similarity to human obstructive sleep apnea.
2017
http://news.vet.tufts.edu/2017/02/evaluating-hypercoagulability-abnormal-blood-coagulation-that-increases-the-risk-of-blood-clots-in-dogs-with-brachycephalic-airway-syndrome-similarity-to-human-obstructive-sleep-apnea/
-------------------------------
Sleep disturbances are common, influenced by race and ethnicity
High
prevalence of sleep disturbances, undiagnosed sleep apnea among
racial/ethnic minorities may contribute to health disparities
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/06/150619141605.htm
--------------------------------
Disparities and Genetic Risk Factors in Obstructive Sleep Apnea
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4602395/
Abstract
Obstructive
sleep apnea (OSA) is an increasingly prevalent condition. A growing
body of literature supports substantial racial disparities in the
prevalence, risk factors, presentation, diagnosis and treatment of this
disease. Craniofacial structure among Asians appears to confer an
elevated risk of OSA despite lower rates of obesity. Among African
Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics, OSA prevalence is increased,
likely due in part to obesity. Burden of symptoms, particularly
excessive daytime sleepiness, is higher among African Americans, though
Hispanics more often report snoring. Limited data suggest African
Americans may be more susceptible to hypertension in the setting of OSA.
While differences in genetic risk factors may explain disparities in
OSA burden, no definitive genetic differences have yet been identified.
In addition to disparities in OSA development, disparities in OSA
diagnosis and treatment have also been identified. Increased severity of
disease at diagnosis among African Americans suggests a delay in
diagnosis. Treatment outcomes are also suboptimal among African
Americans. In children, tonsillectomy is less likely to cure OSA and
more commonly associated with complications in this group. Among adults,
adherence to continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is
substantially lower in African Americans. The reasons for these
disparities, particularly in outcomes, are not well understood and
should be a research priority.
Background
Obstructive
sleep apnea (OSA) is one of the most prevalent sleep disorders with
moderate to severe disease affecting up to 17% of middle-aged men and 9%
of middle-aged women. OSA is associated with numerous adverse
consequences including excessive daytime sleepiness, motor vehicle
accidents, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. A large body of
literature has identified risk factors for OSA, consequences of the
disease and treatment options. However, studies evaluating the extent to
which the development, presentation, consequences and management of OSA
vary by race have not been as extensively considered. This article will
review known differences in OSA by racial background as well as point
out areas where further research is needed.
Disparities in OSA Prevalence
Few
studies have directly compared the prevalence of OSA across racial
groups. In addition, the lack of consistent criteria to define OSA
limits comparisons of OSA prevalence across studies. Nevertheless,
available data indicate an elevated prevalence of OSA among African
Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans as compared to US whites
while the prevalence of OSA in Asians appears comparable to whites.
The
strongest evidence for a racial disparity in OSA exists with regards to
African Americans. Several studies have found a higher rate of OSA in
African Americans particularly African American children.3 Among
pediatric patients evaluated in sleep clinic, African American race is
associated with a 20% increase in OSA severity4 and greater oxygen
desaturation. African American children are 4-6 times more likely to
have OSA compared to white children. Even among young adults less than
26 years of age, African Americans are 88% more likely to have OSA as
compared to whites. Among middle-aged populations, the evidence for a
disparity in OSA prevalence is weaker as differences in OSA prevalence
from community based studies are evident in some but not all studies. In
contrast, data from older populations suggests a disparity may
re-emerge in this age group. While African Americans had similar
prevalence of OSA as whites (32% and 30% respectively) in a
community-based survey of individuals 65 years of age and older, this
group was 2.1 times more likely to have severe OSA.
Data
are somewhat more limited regarding OSA prevalence in US Hispanics. The
Hispanic Community Health Study (HCHS) used portable sleep monitoring
to evaluate the prevalence of OSA in a diverse US Hispanic cohort of
over 14,000 adults. The prevalence of mild, moderate and severe OSA in
this cohort was 25.8%, 9.8%, and 3.9% but OSA risk was found to vary
substantially by Hispanic background being greatest among Cuban men.
Consistent with other racial groups, older age, male gender, and obesity
were independent risk factors for OSA in this cohort. Although the
prevalence is somewhat greater than estimates of community-based white
populations, the monitoring system used is very different making direct
comparisons difficult.
A cross-racial survey utilizing
overnight oximetry, however, did find a higher rate of OSA in Hispanics
compared to whites. In contrast, an analysis of data from one site of
the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) found that the rate of
OSA in Hispanics was similar to whites. However, a more recent analysis
evaluating subjects at all MESA sites has reported a higher prevalence
in Hispanics.
Information about OSA in Native Americans
is sparse. The best evidence comes from SHHS where the odds of moderate
to severe OSA was 1.7 times greater than that found in whites.
Unlike
African Americans, Hispanics and Native Americans, the prevalence of
OSA in Asians and Asian Americans appears similar or lower than that of
whites. In a cross-study analysis comparing Japanese participants in the
Circulatory Risk in Communities Study (CRICS) to whites in MESA, the
prevalence of OSA among Japanese was roughly half that of whites (18.4%
vs. 36.5%).15 However, in other studies, Asians have been found to have
similar OSA severity to whites. In the Male Study of Osteoporosis (MrOS)
cohort of older men, Asian American background was an independent risk
factor for OSA. This is consistent with population-based studies from
Asia where high rates of OSA have been found in China, Japan, Korea and
India, despite low rates of obesity.
In summary,
current data from population-based studies suggest the prevalence of OSA
is greater among African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans
although direct comparisons particularly for Hispanics and Native
Americans compared to other groups are limited. The greater prevalence
in African Americans is particularly notable in younger and older age
groups. Asians and Asian Americans appear to have comparable rates of
OSA to whites despite markedly lower levels of obesity.
OSA Risk Factors
Understanding
the basis of disparities in OSA prevalence requires an evaluation of
disparities in the risk factors for OSA as well as an assessment of
racial heterogeneity in how risk factors contribute to OSA pathogenesis.
Among the most studied OSA risk factors are craniofacial shape and
obesity.
Craniofacial shape
Craniofacial
shape has been recognized as an important contributor to OSA risk. Both
skeletal features such as maxillary-mandibular shape, inferior hyoid
position, and small cranial base, as well as soft tissue features such
as size of the tongue, soft palate, tonsils, pharyngeal walls, and
parapharyngeal fat pads have been identified as OSA risk factors. In
general, studies suggest soft tissue factors may be more relevant to
predicting risk in African Americans while skeletal features are more
predictive in Asians.
Studies comparing African
Americans to whites have found tongue area is significantly larger in
African Americans with OSA. In contrast, skeletal features such as
brachycephaly (a skull shape with a greater lateral compared to
antero-posterior dimension) were predictors of OSA severity in whites
but not African Americans.26 In contrast, Asians with OSA have more
skeletal restriction than their white counterparts as measured by a
shorter cranial base as well as difference in length and positioning of
the maxilla and mandible. In addition, both an inferiorly positioned
hyoid and an extended craniocervical angle have been demonstrated to
predict OSA risk in Asians.28,29 However, it is important to note that
heterogeneity does exist across Asian backgrounds in the relationship
between craniofacial risk factors and OSA.
As compared
to African Americans and Asians, there is much sparser data on the
relationship between craniofacial shape and OSA risk in Hispanics and
Native American groups. Only a few studies have evaluated differences in
craniofacial shape between Hispanics and whites that could contribute
to differences in OSA risk and these have been inconclusive. One study
found bi- maxillary retroposition to be more common among Hispanics with
OSA than apneics of other races,33 however another study did not find
any differences between Hispanics and whites. Table 1 summarizes the
contributing soft tissue and skeletal contributors to OSA, with racial
differences noted where literature is available.
------------------
Brachycephalic Airway Syndrome
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195561692503060
--------------------------
Do Indo-Asians have smaller coronary arteries?
https://pmj.bmj.com/content/75/886/463
-------------------------
Asians look thinner but are fatter than Westerners
SINGAPORE:
Asians may look thinner than Westerners but they have more fat in their
bodies, health experts told a World Health Organisation (WHO) forum
yesterday. Obesity is less of a problem in Asia compared with the West,
but Asians experience higher cases of obesity-related diseases, they
said.
For example, Singaporeans have 5% more
body fat than Caucasians, said Mabel Yap, director for research and
information management at Singapore''s Health Promotion Board.
"What this means is, we are fatter though we look thinner," she said.
The latest National Health Survey in 1998 found that only 6% of Singaporeans were obese, compared with 5% in 1992.
But the number of Singaporeans with obesity-related diseases was comparable to levels in the West.
While
those with diabetes remained at 8%, 27% suffered from high blood
pressure while 23.5% had high cholesterol levels, according to the 1998
survey.
http://nutriweb.org.my/index.php?asians-look-thinner-but-are-fatter-than-westerners_del-20101229194745
-------------------------
The Skinny: Asians are the thinnest Americans but that doesn't mean they're the healthiest
Only 38.6 per cent of Asian Americans are overweight compared to 66.7 per cent of whites and 78.8 per cent for Hispanics
Younger people are more likely to be thinner than older people and
since Asian Americans are a young minority in America, that could
account for their slimness
Asians are just as likely to have high cholesterol or hyper tension as other groups
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2540332/The-Skinny-Asians-thinnest-Americans-doesnt-mean-theyre-healthiest.html
----------------------
Do Asian Women Have the Smallest Breasts?
http://www.8asians.com/2011/04/01/do-asian-women-have-the-smallest-breasts/
-----------------
Mongoloid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid
------------------------
Why Asians are thinner: On Cultural Reduction and Health (Contains offensive language)
https://evidencebasedfitness.net/why-asians-are-thinner-on-cultural-reduction-and-health/
------------------------
{There are several theories to why Orientals are thinner, one reason is that Orientals are
part Denisovan.
It could have been genetics, lack of food, climate or other factors to why Orientals are some
of the smallest people on the planet.
Look at how in Tibet there is very little food, and people there do not grow as big on average compared to white Europeans or black Africans. In many areas of Tibet people can starve
to death in these conditions, and that people learn to adapt with a less amount of food than other people in other areas of the world}.
---------------------
Ectodysplasin A receptor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectodysplasin_A_receptor
Ectodysplasin
A receptor (EDAR) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EDAR
gene. EDAR is a cell surface receptor for ectodysplasin A which plays an
important role in the development of ectodermal tissues such as the
skin. It is structurally related to members of the TNF receptor
superfamily.
Function
EDAR
and other genes provide instructions for making proteins that work
together during embryonic development. These proteins form part of a
signaling pathway that is critical for the interaction between two cell
layers, the ectoderm and the mesoderm. In the early embryo, these cell
layers form the basis for many of the body's organs and tissues.
Ectoderm-mesoderm interactions are essential for the proper formation of
several structures that arise from the ectoderm, including the skin,
hair, nails, teeth, and sweat glands.
Clinical significance
Mutation
in this gene have been associated with hypohidrotic ectodermal
dysplasia, a disorder characterized by a lower density of sweat glands.
Derived EDAR allele
A
derived G-allele point mutation (SNP) with pleiotropic effects in EDAR,
370A or rs3827760, found in most modern East Asians and Native
Americans but not common in African or European populations, is thought
to be one of the key genes responsible for a number of differences
between these populations, including the thicker hair, more numerous
sweat glands, smaller breasts, and the Sinodont dentition (so-called
shovel incisors) characteristic of East Asians. It has been hypothesized
that natural selection favored this allele during the last ice age in a
population of people living in isolation in Beringia, as it may play a
role in the synthesis of breast milk under Vitamin D-poor conditions.
The 370A mutation arose in humans approximately 30,000 years ago, and
now is found in 93% of Han Chinese and in the majority of people in
nearby Asian populations. This mutation is also implicated in ear
morphology differences and reduced chin protrusion. The derived G-allele
is a mutation of the ancestral A-allele, the version found in most
modern non-East Asian and non-Native American populations.
In
a 2015 study, three (of six) ancient DNA samples (7,900-7,500 BP) from
Motala, Sweden; two (3300–3000 BC) from the Afanasevo culture and one
(400–200 BC) Scythian sample were found to carry the rs3827760 mutation.
In
a 2018 study, several ancient DNA samples from the Americas, including
USR1 from the Upward Sun River site, Anzick-1, and the 9,600 BP
individual from Lapa do Santo, were found to not carry the derived
allele. This suggests that the increased frequency of the derived allele
occurred independently in both East Asia and the Americas.
--------------------------
Thick Hair, Small Boobs, Shovel Shaped Teeth and More
https://dna-explained.com/2013/02/17/thick-hair-small-boobs-shovel-shaped-teeth-and-more/
Posted on February 17, 2013
Yep,
there’s a gene for these traits, and more. The same gene, named EDAR
(short for Ectodysplasin receptor EDARV370A), it turns out, also confers
more sweat glands and distinctive teeth and is found in the majority of
East Asian people.
This is one of the results of the
National Geographic’s Genographic project. This mutation found at
location rs3827760 on chromosome 2 occurred about 35,000 years ago. It
apparently has conferred some advantage to its carriers, because it is
found in the majority of Asian people today. We don’t exactly know why
that happened, but maybe ancient male Asians preferred thick haired,
small boobed and sweaty women. Or maybe those women survived when women
with more body fat (yes, boobs are fat, sorry guys) and who could sweat
less perished.
This New York Times article discusses
the experiments performed to verify that this gene in fact does confer
those traits. The scientific article itself is available in the
journal, Cell although it’s behind a paywall.
------------------
{We see a higher rate of Sotos Syndrome in Japanese people. Could this be one of the reasons why we often see Orientals with enlarged heads, flat faces, including many of the symptoms associated with Sotos Syndrome?
Many say that the brachycephalic problems in Orientals could be from a very slight similar form of a type of Sotos Syndrome that was passed on genetically through generations.
We notice that this may also be one of the reasons why some black people also have many of the genetic problems associated with Sotos Syndrome as well, this would also give a reason to why black infants grow faster after birth than other races of infants. The reason why some blacks learn to walk sooner than other races is because blacks are part animal, most animals learn to walk sooner than a human. We question if a Homo heidelbergensis or a Homo erectus could learn to walk sooner than a human.
We can still see that the west has some of the best high IQ inventors such as Tesla, Da Vinci and the Germans that made the nuclear bomb}.
--------------------
What You Should Know About Sotos Syndrome
https://www.healthline.com/health/sotos-syndrome
Physical and physiological symptoms of Sotos syndrome in babies include:
being a large baby at birth
growing quickly after birth
jaundice
poor feeding
In children, such symptoms include:
being taller and bigger than peers of the same age
large head
large hands and feet
long and narrow face
high forehead
red or flushed cheeks
small and pointy chin
weak muscle tone
down-slanting eyes
hypertelorism, which means having a large distance between the eyes
awkward gait, or way of walking
scoliosis
seizures
hearing loss
kidney and heart problems
vision problems
Mental and developmental symptoms of Sotos syndrome in children include:
learning disabilities
delayed development
behavioral problems
speech and language problems
aggressiveness and irritability
clumsiness
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
motor skill problems
Risk factors of this condition
Soto's syndrome occurs in 1 out of 14,000 births. This condition is more
common among people who are Japanese or of Japanese heritage.
--------------------
How Japanese and Belgian Sweat Differ
https://nippaku.wordpress.com/2013/07/25/how-japanese-and-belgian-sweat-differ/
--------------------
Do Asians Sweat More?
http://www.8asians.com/2013/03/20/do-asians-sweat-more/
--------------------
Characterization of the Asian Phenotype - An Emerging Paradigm with Clinicopathological and Human Research Implications
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5562114/
---------------
The mitogenome of a 35,000-year-old Homo sapiens from Europe supports a Palaeolithic back-migration to Africa
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep25501
----------------
Psychologists find Asian Americans get a social boost from being overweight
https://qz.com/1048804/psychologists-find-asian-americans-get-a-social-boost-from-being-overweight/
-------------------
Why do Asians have bigger brains than Europeans or Africans?
Chinese scientists discover natural selection played a role
https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/2054126/why-do-asians-have-bigger-brains-europeans-or-africans
--------------------
Genetics
Canine brain tumors as a platform for discovery:
https://www2.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/Neurology/Research/PetersonGenetics.html
------------------
Why Summer Heat Can Be Deadly To Brachycephalic Dogs
https://dogtime.com/dog-health/53229-summer-heat-can-deadly-brachycephalic-dogs
----------------
Two weeks in the mountains can change your blood for months
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/10/two-weeks-mountains-can-change-your-blood-months
--------------
What is Low Blood Oxygen?
https://wagwalking.com/cat/condition/low-blood-oxygen
{Some brachycephalic kinds of cats have more low blood oxygen than other cats}.
-----------------
Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats
https://wagwalking.com/cat/condition/brachycephalic-syndrome
What is Brachycephalic Syndrome? Brachycephalic syndrome may involve
several upper airway abnormalities. Cats with this health issue may have
an elongated soft palate, stenotic nares (narrow, pinched nostrils),
and everted laryngeal saccules (small sacs in the larynx that turn out).
All of these obstruct normal air flow. Some cats may also have narrowed
tracheas or hypoplastic tracheas. Cats that develop brachycephalic
syndrome typically have shortened skull bones and short, pushed-in
noses. “Brachycephalic” comes from two words, with “brachy” meaning
Symptoms of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats
The cat with brachycephalic syndrome shows several characteristic
symptoms that all combine to make breathing difficult: Mouth breathing
Noisy breathing Snoring Labored breathing Snorting noises Fainting after
exertion Tiring with physical activity Restlessness Coughing and gaging
Frequent retching or vomiting Cyanosis Worsening symptoms during hot
weather Because of the cat’s facial features and breathing issues, it
may also have additional symptoms and issues: Difficulty swallowing
Higher risk of heat stroke Dental and periodontal disease Skin
infections in the folds of its face Abnormal body posture from attempts
to breathe more efficiently Eye problems
Causes of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats
Brachycephalic syndrome has only a few causes: Cats that are bred to
have shortened faces Narrowed nostrils Long soft palate Turned-out
laryngeal saccules Hypoplastic (narrower than normal) trachea Breeders
prefer this shortened head shape in several cat breeds, but this leads
to significant health issues for those cats.
Diagnosis of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats
Once a cat has begun to display symptoms, it can be easy for the vet to
develop a diagnosis, but they will still want to run several diagnostic
tests to make sure it is correct. The vet may recognize the cat’s
appearance and ask about any unusual symptoms the owner may have
noticed, such as fainting, noisy breathing or difficulty breathing. Vets
know that certain purebred cats are more likely to have been bred to
have the shortened face. Knowing this, they will examine the cat, noting
its facial characteristics. The vet will also visually inspect the
cat’s palate and look for the turned-out laryngeal sacs. This may need
to be done while the cat is under anesthesia. Because cats with
brachycephalic syndrome don’t always tolerate anesthesia well, the vet
will order chest X-rays and blood work to determine the cat’s overall
health before beginning anesthesia. While the cat is under anesthesia
for the diagnostic work, the vet will also recommend that surgery be
done at the same time. By combining the diagnostic work and surgery into
one procedure, this reduces the risk to the cat’s life. The vet will
specifically look at the cat’s CO2 and pH levels when they order blood
work. This helps them to understand the extent of the cat’s breathing
problems. The cat may also undergo an endoscopic examination of the
trachea and upper airway to see how severe the airways and trachea are
affected by this syndrome. Finally, the vet orders bacterial cultures or
a biopsy of the airway to identify any potential infections the cat may
have.
Treatment of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats
Treatment of brachycephalic airway syndrome begins immediately because
of its effects on the cat’s health and life. If the cat is overweight,
the vet wants to see the cat can lose the unneeded weight. By losing
excess pounds, the cat will find it easier to breathe and, eventually,
to move around more easily. The cat may begin taking non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory (NSAIDS) medications to help give short-term relief
from respiratory distress and airway inflammation. Corticosteroids can
give the cat the same type of relief from its symptoms. Oxygen therapy
allows the cat to get more oxygen into its airways and body. These only
help to manage symptoms, not correct their causes. Surgery is the best
option to help the cat get needed, permanent relief. The veterinary
surgeon widens the cat’s nostrils by removing a small wedge of tissue.
The soft palate is shortened, making it much easier for the cat to
breathe post-surgery. Finally, the turned-outward laryngeal sacs will be
removed, further removing obstructions to the cat’s airway. The earlier
the cat is diagnosed with brachycephalic syndrome and surgically
treated, the better. This prevents the cat from developing other
abnormalities related to its shortened face.
--------------------
‘We are all mutants now’: the trouble with genetic testing
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jul/18/we-are-all-mutants-now-the-trouble-with-genetic-testing-----------------
{Could a natural disaster activate a natural mutation gene that is already built into the genetic structure of humans}?
-----------------
African Americans at Increased Risk for Eye Diseases
Cataracts
Glaucoma
Diabetes
Hypertension
https://yoursightmatters.com/african-americr-eye-diseases/
------------------
Focus on Eye Health and Culturally Diverse Populations
http://www.visionproblemsus.org/downloads/2167_MultiCultiCompanion_v08_web.pdf
Myopia – Myopia, or trouble seeing far away, affects upwards of 80 percent of Asian Americans.
-----------------------------------
{Here is an example of a dysgenic brachycephalic black man with bug-eyes}.
Man Pops Out Eyes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDIGDNQ-fbY
-----------------------------------
Stock Photo - Handsome bug-eyed African American male freelancer in shirt having forgetful face expression touching head with hand, realizing today is deadline of his project, opening mouth as if saying No!
https://www.123rf.com/photo_75999029_handsome-bug-eyed-african-american-male-freelancer-in-shirt-having-forgetful-face-expression-touchin.html
--------------------------------------
Flat Feline Faces: Is Brachycephaly Associated with Respiratory Abnormalities in the Domestic Cat (Felis catus)?
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0161777
-------------------------------------
The Evolution of Petface
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/evolution-petface-180967987/
The same traits that make these dogs adorable threaten their health and well-being
Consider the French bulldog. On the plus side, this charismatic small dog is relatively low-maintenance, doesn’t need a lot of exercise and sticks close to its owner; for many, the makings of a perfect pet. But the health issues associated with brachycephaly, which refers to dog breeds that have wide and flat skulls, means that they often require a higher-than-average amount of veterinary treatment. Moreover, they are forced to rely on humans for things as simple as having their wrinkles cleaned out and giving birth.
The American Kennel Club, which oversees dog breeding standards in the United States, stipulates that Frenchies should have “bat ears” along with “heavy wrinkles forming a soft roll over the extremely short nose.” But those bat ears are prone to infection, as the AKC itself notes. Thanks to their short faces, “Frenchies have less tolerance of heat, exercise and stress, all of which increase their need to breathe,” the guide continues, advising that Frenchie owners keep their pets cool and avoid strenuous exercise. It also notes that the dog’s wrinkles “can be prone to yeast and bacterial infections,” and should be cleaned regularly.
This is just one example of how extreme breed conformation can affect dog welfare and increase the reliance of brachycephalic dogs on human intervention. Yet while it’s long been known that purebred dogs tend to suffer from body shapes and genetic conditions that hurt their health and limit their day-to-day existence, it’s only now that we’re beginning to understand the long history and scientific mechanisms behind this suffering.
How We Got Here
The purebred concept emerged in the Victorian period, when middle-class city dwellers started regularly keeping pets for themselves and their children, rather than just farm animals. Around this time, the eugenics movement preached that it was possible to breed “pure” and ideal animals and humans.
“The systematic breeding of dogs emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century,” writes animal welfare scientist James A. Serpell in Companion Animal Ethics. “Although there were already clearly distinguishable breeds of dogs and other domestic animals before this, the new trend was characterised by conscious efforts to ‘improve’ domestic animals through controlled breeding.” While eugenics is now looked down upon in humans, it’s in many ways alive and well in the pet world. The ideal of “purebred” dogs as being somehow more valuable and desirable is still upheld by kennel clubs, breeders and those who buy them, says Bonnett.
---------------------------
Headform and human evolution
https://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC1272824&blobtype=pdf
---------------------------
Brachycephaly – What You Need to Know?
What is Brachycephaly?
A brachycephalic skull is flat in the rear. The head is also often taller in the back than in the front, the baby’s face may be wider than average, and his or her ears may stick out. The condition frequently occurs in combination with plagiocephaly, and is nearly always the result of positioning of the head of the baby, where pressure is placed on the back of the head for prolonged periods.
What Causes Brachycephaly?
Congenital
Sometimes brachycephaly is a congenital condition, which means it exists at or before birth. According to the National Institutes of Health’s NINDS, brachycephaly occurs when the front bone and side bones join together before the skull is fully developed. There are numerous potential causes for brachycephaly, including metabolic, genetic and developmental disorders. If your child is diagnosed with congenital brachycephaly, make sure that they are evaluated for any associated conditions that your doctor believes are potentially to blame.
Brachycephaly Risk Factors
Risk factors for congenital brachycephaly are predominantly thought to be genetic, although many cases develop in babies with no family history of brachycephaly. As a result, the study of brachycephaly is a popular area of research at present.
The risks for developing the acquired form of brachycephaly include all of the observed risk factors for plagiocephaly, as well as carrying low in the pelvis during pregnancy, very large birth size (macrosomia), breech birth, and being born to a mother with a bicornuate uterus.
https://www.babyflathead.org/brachycephaly-what-you-need-to-know/
---------------
Brachycephalic, dolichocephalic and mesocephalic: is it appropriate to describe the face using skull patterns?
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Brachycephalic%2C-dolichocephalic-and-mesocephalic%3A-Franco-Ara%C3%BAjo/60b4a1bec6c979243168c2806fbb1b0a2c8242c0
The use of a standardized terminology in the medical sciences is essential for both clinical practice and scientific research. In addition to facilitating communication between professionals, it enhances the reliability of comparisons made between studies from different areas, thereby contributing to a higher level of scientific evidence. Examples of attempts made to standardize the terminology in other areas dedicated to the study of craniofacial morphology can be found in the literature. On the other hand, one can find in the orthodontic literature a variety of terms that render the consensus and communication between orthodontists and other researchers even more problematic. As an example, one could cite the use of the terms brachyfacial, mesofacial and dolichofacial, which form part of a cranial index terminology used to describe facial types. Thus, a reflection on the origin and differences of the terms used to describe the human facial phenotype may pave the way toward a consensus regarding the meaning that best represents the craniofacial patterns.
-------------
Study: Genetic Mutation Linked to Brachycephaly in Dogs
https://www.petguide.com/blog/dog/study-genetic-mutation-linked-to-brachycephaly-in-dogs/
Flat faces on Bulldogs and Pugs are cute, but they can lead to breathing problems. New research shows that those faces are linked to a genetic mutation in dogs and their skull development.
Researchers from the Roslin Institute at the University of Edinburgh have studied DNA samples of almost 400 dogs. They believe they’ve found a genetic mutation that shapes the flat faces of breeds like Boxers, Bulldogs and Pugs. The researchers think that this finding also may give insight into birth defects in human children with regard to their head development while in the womb.
Related: UK Vets Warn Against Owning Flat-Faced Breeds
The dogs in the study were pedigreed and mixed breed, and had body scans that gave the scientists access to 3-dimensional images of their heads. They took measurements of the dogs’ skulls and were able to compare those measurements with genetic information. They noted specific DNA variations that they correlated with different head shapes.
They found that a variation in the gene SMOC2 was linked to the length of a dog’s face. When there was a mutated development of that gene, the animals with that mutation were found to have much flatter faces than other canines. This flat face is also known as brachycephalic, and can cause significant health issues in those affected.
Dr. Jeffrey Shoenbeck, lead researcher, says that this finding is important as it gives more information on the genetic and molecular composition that goes into skull formation in dogs and humans.
Humans can be born brachycephalic as well, and the researchers now believe that based on their connections, screening of the SMOC2 gene in humans can bring a diagnosis of brachycephaly in children.
Many dogs are specifically bred for their brachycephalic attributes, though more and more veterinarians caution about doing so because of the extensive breathing problems that result from this breeding.
--------------
Here's Why Brachycephalic Dogs Such As Pugs And Bulldogs Have Flat Face
https://www.techtimes.com/articles/208570/20170530/heres-why-brachycephalic-dogs-such-as-pugs-and-bulldogs-have-flat-face.htm
--------------------
Dog skull study reveals genetic changes linked to face shape
The research reveals new insights into the genes that underpin skull formation in people and animals.
Scientists say their findings also shed light on the causes of birth defects that affect babies' head development in the womb.
Researchers at the University of Edinburgh's Roslin Institute analysed DNA samples from 374 pet dogs of various pedigree and mixed breeds. The dogs were being treated at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies.
All of the animals underwent body scans as part of their care, producing detailed 3-dimensional images of the dogs' heads.
These high-resolution images -- called CT scans -- enabled the researchers to take precise measurements of the shape of the dog's skull.
By comparing the dogs' genetic information with measurements of their skulls, the team were able to pinpoint DNA variations that are associated with different head shapes.
One variation -- found to disrupt the activity of a gene called SMOC2 -- was strongly linked to the length of the dog's face. Animals with the mutation had significantly flatter faces, a condition called brachycephaly.
Babies are sometimes born with brachycephaly too, though little is known about its causes. Scientists say screening children for changes in the SMOC2 gene could help to diagnose the condition.
The study is published in the journal Current Biology.
Lead researcher Dr Jeffrey Schoenebeck, of the University's Roslin Institute, said: "Our results shed light on the molecular nature of this type of skull form that is so common and popular among dogs."
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/05/170526125730.htm
---------------------
Why are the backs of Asian babies' heads flat?
https://www.quora.com/Why-are-the-backs-of-Asian-babies-heads-flat
----------------------------
Scientists have discovered a mutation behind pugs’ weird little flat faces
Not cute
https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/28/15703688/pugs-bulldogs-boston-terriers-squished-flat-faces-brachycephalic-genetics
----------------------
The Relationship between Brachycephalic Head Features in Modern Persian Cats and Dysmorphologies of the Skull and Internal Hydrocephalus
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5598898/
-------------------------
Severe brachycephalic in Persian and related breeds
https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-health/brachycephalic
-----------------------
Putting our heads together: Canines may hold clues to human skull development
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/02/130208105303.htm
----------------------
Brachycephalic Dogs: Why Do Pugs Breathe So Loudly
https://www.puglifemagazine.com/single-post/Brachycephalic-Dogs
-------------------------
Vision in Dogs
http://www.rctn.org/bruno/animal-eyes/dog-vision-miller-murphy.pdf
--------------
Study Finds Hispanic- and African-American Preschoolers Need Better Vision Screening
https://www.aao.org/eye-health/news/hispanic-african-american-preschoolers-screening-------------------
Ancient Wolf Genome Reveals an Early Divergence of Domestic Dog Ancestors and Admixture into High-Latitude Breeds
http://genetics.med.harvard.edu/reichlab/Reich_Lab/Welcome_files/Pontus_TaimyrWolf_CurrentBiology_2015.pdf
----------------------
Origin of the domestic dog
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_the_domestic_dog
{What would happen if you kept breeding these Pug dogs with these facial deformities, do you think that Pugs could turn into an even more dysgenic type of breed}.
-----------------------
{Look at how the face of a Chow Dog is similar to that of an Oriental person.
We can see that both the Chow species of dog and Orientals have lived in the same
area where these face deformities have occurred. Some Orientals however are also very good at breathing at high altitudes, such as the people of Tibet. We can see that the reason why Orientals can breathe at higher altitudes is they have more Denisovan animal DNA.
More research needs to be done to see how a deformity in an airway of the nose can cause different genetic mutations in brachycephalic species of dogs, and including brachycephalic species of humans}.
-----------
Things to think about before buying a flat-faced (brachycephalic) dog
https://www.bluecross.org.uk/pet-advice/things-think-about-buying-flat-faced-dog
{Wow look at this, we even see similar eye problems in flat faced dogs and brachycephalic dogs
as we see in black people}.
-----------------
Gene which helps people cope with low oxygen levels at high altitudes could become target for new drugs to treat heart disease
https://www.aao.org/eye-health/news/ethnicity-eye-disease-risk-reminder-asian-african-
--------------
Vision risks vary by ethnic and genetic backgrounds
https://versanthealth.com/visionreferencelibrary/2017/04/24/risk-of-vision-problems-increased-in-certain-ethnic-groups/
Vision problems can affect all of us, with age and gender being
just two factors. Did you know that different ethnicities can also play
an important role? Research suggests that some ethnic backgrounds are
subject to an increased risk of vision problems compared to others.
African Americans
African Americans are more likely than Caucasians to develop cataracts. As a result, they are five times more likely to develop blindness.
Glaucoma
African Americans are also five times more likely than Caucasians to develop glaucoma, and four times more likely to suffer blindness from it as a result. Glaucoma is often characterized by the loss of periphery vision that can progress to complete vision loss without treatment.
Asian Americans
Asian Americans are more likely than the national average to develop angle-closure glaucoma…Glaucoma
Asian Americans are more likely than the national average to develop angle-closure glaucoma, caused by rapid or sudden increases in pressure inside the eye. Glaucoma is often characterized by the loss of periphery vision that can progress to complete vision loss without treatment. People of Japanese descent are also more prone to a particular type of the disease, called low-tension glaucoma.
Caucasians
Hispanics
Among Hispanics, cataracts are three times more common vs. Caucasians and African Americans. The disease is the leading cause of visual impairment among Hispanic adults. Extended exposure to UV rays is a risk factor.
---------------
{Orientals and the eyes of black people are more deformed, this is why they have more eye problems. Blacks have a smaller skull on average, and black people also have more eye problems than other races}.
---------------
Glaucoma in the African American and Hispanic Communities
https://www.brightfocus.org/glaucoma/article/glaucoma-african-american-and-hispanic-communities
----------------
African Americans and Glaucoma
https://www.glaucoma.org/glaucoma/african-americans-and-glaucoma.php
-----------------
How Popular Dog Breeds Have Changed Over Time
https://brightside.me/wonder-animals/how-popular-dog-breeds-have-changed-over-time-649110/
{Look at how the Pug dog actually became a dysgenic race of dog.
Many say that different races of humans had a similar fate as the Pug.
Many say that blacks are not the original humans, and that whites are the original humans.
Look at what happens when a group of species becomes dysgenic in a dog species, many think
that this is a form of dysgenic devolution. Many think that certain dysgenic mutations would have a similar effect in humans.
The Pug is a brachycephalic breed and their traits have become exaggerated. As a result, they have heart and breathing problems, high blood pressure, and low blood oxygen levels.
We can clearly see that the results for the Pug dog is similar to dysgenic traits in black humans. Both Pugs and black people have additional heart and breathing problems, including high blood pressure}.
----------------------
More oxygen in eyes of African-Americans may help explain glaucoma risk
http://www.isionaware.org/blog/visionaware-blog/african-american-patients-highest-risk-for-diabetic-retinopathy-and-lowest-rates-for-follow-up-eye-care-%E2%80%93-what-kind-of-education-is-needed/12
They found that oxygen levels are significantly higher in the eyes of African-Americans with glaucoma than in Caucasians with the disease. The researchers report their findings in the July issue of the Archives of Ophthalmology. They suspect that more oxygen may damage the drainage system in the eye, resulting in elevated pressure. Higher pressure can damage the optic nerve, causing blindness.
The study provides the first physiologic clue about the link between race and risk for glaucoma. Glaucoma is the leading cause of blindness among African-Americans. Compared to Caucasians, glaucoma is about six times more common in African-Americans, and blindness caused by glaucoma is roughly 16 times more likely in African-Americans.
-------------------
Why 7 Deadly Diseases Strike Blacks Most
Diabetes is 60% more common in black Americans than in white Americans. Blacks are up to 2.5 times more likely to suffer a limb amputation and up to 5.6 times more likely to suffer kidney disease than other people with diabetes.
African-Americans are three times more likely to die of asthma than white Americans.
Deaths from lung scarring -- sarcoidosis -- are 16 times more common among blacks than among whites. The disease recently killed former NFL star Reggie White at age 43.
Despite lower tobacco exposure, black men are 50% more likely than white men to get lung cancer.
Strokes kill 4 times more 35- to 54-year-old black Americans than white Americans. Blacks have nearly twice the first-time stroke risk of whites.
Blacks develop high blood pressure earlier in life -- and with much higher blood pressure levels -- than whites. Nearly 42% of black men and more than 45% of black women aged 20 and older have high blood pressure.
Cancer treatment is equally successful for all races. Yet black men have a 40% higher cancer death rate than white men. African-American women have a 20% higher cancer death rate than white women.
Why?
Genes definitely play a role. So does the environment in which people live, socioeconomic status -- and, yes, racism, says Clyde W. Yancy, MD, associate dean of clinical affairs and medical director for heart failure/transplantation at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.
https://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/features/why-7-deadly-diseases-strike-blacks-most#1
---------------------
Asthma Studies Raise Thorny Questions about Race and Genetics
Research shows that African-Americans don’t respond as well as their white counterparts to some of the most common asthma controller medications, raising questions about how those medications are tested in clinical trials.http://www.calhealthreport.org/2017/05/01/asthma-studies-raise-thorny-questions-about-race-and-genetics/
---------------------
Genetic Ancestry Is Associated With Measures of Subclinical Atherosclerosis in African Americans
Conclusions—
Overall, our findings indicate that genetic ancestry was associated with subclinical atherosclerosis, suggesting unmeasured risk factors and interactions with genetic factors might contribute to the distribution of subclinical atherosclerosis among African Americans.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.114.304855
-----------------------
HPV Vaccines May Be Less Effective in African American Women
African American women are more likely to have HPV strains that are not included in current vaccines.
https://www.everydayhealth.com/womens-health/hpv-vaccines-may-be-less-effective-in-african-american-women-researchers-find.aspx
-------------------------
CDC: Genital Herpes Among Black Women High
https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=124628530
-----------------------
Interracial Marriage More Common Than Ever, but Black Women Still Lag
Americans more likely to marry outside of their race, especially black men
----------------------
Breast Cancer in Young African American Women
https://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/entertainmented/tips/BreastCancerAfricanAmerican.html
Resources for Entertainment Education Content Developers.
What’s the Problem?
Every year, 24,000 women under the age of 45 are diagnosed with breast cancer; and 3,000 will die as a result. Young African American women under the age of 35 have breast cancer rates that are two times higher than Caucasian women of the same age. Furthermore, young African American women are three times as likely to die from breast cancer as Caucasian women of the same age. Once diagnosed, young African American women face unique challenges that are either not present or are less severe for older women. Having a breast health course of action and discussing the significant implications of a breast cancer diagnosis is essential for young African American women in taking care of their health.--------------------
Eye Diseases Among African Americans
The most common eye diseases and conditions that affect African Americans include cataract, diabetic eye disease, glaucoma, and low vision. Many of these diseases and conditions do not have noticeable symptoms in their early stages, but they can be detected through a comprehensive dilated eye exam. Treatment is most effective when an eye disease is diagnosed early.
https://nei.nih.gov/nehep/programs/write-the-vision/eye-diseases-among-african-americans
----------------------
African Americans at Increased Risk for Eye Diseases
https://yoursightmatters.com/african-americr-eye-diseases/
-----------------------
Immune system of African-Americans responds more strongly to bacterial infection
While the immune system of African Americans responds more strongly,
Professor Barreiro is careful to qualify it as better: "The immune
system of African Americans responds differently, but we cannot conclude
that it is better, since a stronger immune response also has negative
effects, including greater susceptibility to autoimmune inflammatory
diseases such as Crohn's disease. Too much inflammation can damage
organs and leave sequelae. In short, a strong immune response can be
beneficial in some areas but a disadvantage in others.
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2016-10/uom-iso101716.php
---------------------------
Racial Classification of Indian People (by Different Anthropologist)
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/anthropology/racial-classification-of-indian-people-by-different-anthropologist/41839
------------------------
Inbreeding depression and intelligence quotient among north Indian children.
1993
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8240214
------------------------
-------------------------
Who were the ghost people of Africa? DNA reveals ancient Africans bred with new unknown race of humans just 50,000 years ago
13 February 2020
The researchers studied the genetic material of 405 people from West Africa
They discovered mystery genetic material, which they have termed 'ghost DNA'
It suggests that humans mixed with an unknown group about 50,000 years ago
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7997861/New-study-shows-ghost-DNA-modern-day-population-west-Africa.html
-------------------------
FACTSHEET: Africa’s leading causes of death
https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-africas-leading-causes-death/
Africa’s top 5 causes of death
#1 Lower respiratory tract infections
The
leading cause of death in Africa, lower respiratory tract infections
target your airways and lungs. Diverse in origin, they stem from many
viruses and bacteria and occasionally fungi or parasites.
The
most common illnesses are bronchitis or pneumonia. Pneumonia is
single-handedly responsible for 16% of global deaths of children younger
than five, with a significantly greater share in Africa.
The
notable exclusion from this category is tuberculosis as the disease can
infect virtually anywhere in the body even if initially limited to the
lungs.
---------------------------------
What You Should Know About Sickle Cell Trait
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/documents/SCD%20factsheet_Sickle%20Cell%20Trait.pdf
In their extreme form and in rare cases, the following conditions could be harmful for people with
SCT:Increased pressure in the atmosphere (e.g., while scuba diving).
•Low oxygen levels in the air
(e.g., when mountain climbing,
•exercising extremely hard in military boot camp, or training for
an athletic competition).Dehydration (e.g., too little water in the body).
•High altitudes
(e.g., flying, mountain climbing, or visiting a city at
•a high altitude).
----------------------------------
{After reading the problem with
genetics in blacks and in Pug dogs, many people have changed their
opinion on the theory that blacks were the first humans with all of
these dysgenic traits.
We can see the species of Pug has actually now regressed, this same type of devolution happens
in humans as well. We can see how many
African bushmen have an IQ average of around 70 in some places, when we
have white people with an IQ of over 120 inventing nuclear weapons and
new types of lazers.
Could it be possible for a dysgenic species of Pug to breed with another species of dog to try and
revitalize its species and become a new hybrid breed of dog}.
--------------------------
Brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachycephalic_airway_obstructive_syndrome
------------------------
{Some blacks even look like dogs, some blacks even look like a Pit Bull or Doberman}.
-------------------------
Snoop Dogg turns into a dog
SNOOP DOGG - WHO AM I (WHATS MY NAME)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-hIjgofcuWU
---------------------------
A Dog's Size and Head Shape Predicts Its Behavior
The shape and size of a dog seems to be associated with its temperament.
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/201603/dogs-size-and-head-shape-predicts-its-behavior
Our
selective breeding of dogs has modified their size and their shape
dramatically so that the more than 400 recorded breeds of dogs are
easily recognizable based on their physical characteristics. It also
appears that there is some correlation between a dog's head shape and
the functions that they perform for humans; for example the sighthounds
(who pursue game over open ground) tend to have long narrow heads, while
many of the guarding breeds tend to have more square shaped heads.
A
team of researchers headed by Holly Stone of the Faculty of Veterinary
Science at the University of Sydney in Australia decided to see if the
body size and head shape of dogs predicted aspects of canine behavior.
Their report appears in the journal PLoS ONE. This is a massive study,
involving 67,368 dogs from 45 different breeds. Data collection was done
over a period of eight years at 235 testing areas in Sweden. The
behavior testing was done using the Dog Mentality Assessment Test, which
is a standardized behavioral test involving 10 different subtests
designed to measure a dog's aggressiveness, defensiveness, playfulness
and sociability, fearfulness, chase instinct, curiosity and so forth.
Some of the subtests involve observing the dog's reactions to
individuals who appear to be strange or threatening, other measures test
their reactions to sudden events like strange sounds, gunshots, or
dummies that pop up from nowhere.
The physical
variables that the researchers were interested in were primarily the
height and weight of the dog, and the shape of the dog's head. While the
first two variables are obvious the shape of the dog's head requires a
bit of explanation. There is a lot of variability in head shape among
the various dog breeds. Put simply, head shape ranges from the
long-headed dogs, technically called "dolichocephalic" (such as the
Afghan Hound or the Greyhound) to the broader wide-skulled dogs
technically called "brachycephalic" (such as the Pug or French Bulldog).
In between are the "mesocephalic" (sometimes called "mesaticephalic")
which would include the Golden Retriever or the Beagle. You can see some
examples below.
The dog's height predicted a number of
aspects of the dog's behavioral tendencies. It may be a surprise to
many people to find that shorter dogs were found to be generally more
aggressive than taller dogs. In addition the taller dogs tended to show
more affection, cooperation, and playfulness with humans.
The
dog's weight also predicted certain personality characteristics.
Heavier dogs tended to be bolder, more inquisitive, and attentive.
Lighter dogs tended to be more cautious and fearful.
Head
shape also predicted some differences in temperament. The
brachycephalic dogs seem to be more engaged with their owners with a
higher interest in human-directed play. On the other hand these
short-faced dogs were more defensive when faced with a difficult to
interpret situation (such as seeing a person dressed like a ghost). The
dolichocephalic dogs seem to be less likely to engage in object play,
especially with unfamiliar humans. However these long-faced dogs were
not as easily startled and recovered more quickly when an unexpected
event occurred.
These are just the major findings.
However the overall conclusion is that the height, weight, and head
shape of dogs can predict certain important behavioral and temperament
variables including certain aspects of aggression, fearfulness,
sociability and affection. In general it supports Sigmund Freud's
contention that "Physiology is destiny," at least when it comes to the
size and shape of dogs.
For those of you who are
curious (perhaps to check the head shape of your own dog) I have
included a brief list of dog breeds classified by their head shape
below:
List of dolichocephalic (long-headed) dog breeds
Afghan Hound
Airedale Terrier
Basset Hound
Bedlington Terrier
Bloodhound
Borzoi
Bull Terrier
Cesky Terrier
Dachshund
Doberman Pinscher
English Bull Terrier
German Shepherd
Great Dane
Greyhound
Ibizan Hound
Irish Wolfhound
Italian Greyhound
Manchester Terrier
Miniature Bull Terrier
Pharaoh Hound
Poodle
Rough Collie
Saluki
Scottish Deerhound
Scottish Terrier
Shetland Sheepdog
Smooth Fox Terrier
Whippet
Wire Fox Terrier
List of mesocephalic (medium-headed) dog breeds
Alaskan Malamute
American Cocker Spaniel
Australian Cattle Dog
Australian Shepherd
Basenji
Beagle
Bearded Collie
Beauceron
Belgian Malinois
Belgian Sheepdog
Bernese Mountain Dog
Bichon Frisé
Black and Tan Coonhound
Border Collie
Border Terrier
Brittany Spaniel
Cairn Terrier
Cardigan Welsh Corgi
Chesapeake Bay Retriever
Chinese Crested
Clumber Spaniel
Dalmatian
English Cocker Spaniel
English Foxhound
English Springer Spaniel
Field Spaniel
German Shorthaired Pointer
Golden Retriever
Irish Setter
Japanese Spitz
Keeshond
Komondor
Kuvasz
Labrador Retriever
Maltese
Miniature Pinscher
Norfolk Terrier
Norwich Terrier
Papillon
Pembroke Welsh Corgi
Pomeranian
Rottweiler
Saint Bernard
Samoyed
Siberian Husky
Vizsla
Weimaraner
West Highland White Terrier
Yorkshire Terrier
List of brachycephalic (short-headed) dog breeds
Affenpinscher
American Pit Bull Terrier
American Staffordshire Terrier
Boston Terrier
Boxer-
Brussels Griffon
Bulldog
Bullmastiff
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel
Chow Chow
Dogo Argentino
Dogue de Bordeaux
English Mastiff
French Bulldog
Japanese Chin
King Charles Spaniel (or English Toy Spaniel)
Lhasa Apso
Neapolitan Mastiff
Newfoundland
Pekingese
Pug
Shar-Pei
Silky Terrier
Tibetan Spaniel
Yorkshire Terrier.
-----------------------------------------------
{We
can see that the Pug is classified as the same head type of
brachycephalic (short-headed) dog breeds as a Pit Bull and Chow Chow, two
of the some of the most unpredictive dogs known to attack humans. It seems that
each head type of dog has its own different aggressive dogs
as well. Maybe this is sometimes why some races act more aggressive than others, and why
some third world nations continue to be in the state of decay that they are in}.
----------------
Variation of BMP3 Contributes to Dog Breed Skull Diversity
https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/9919170/Variation_of_BMP3_Contributes_to_Dog_Breed_Skull_Diversity.pdf
----------------------
Impact of Facial Conformation on Canine Health: Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Syndrome
Abstract
The
domestic dog may be the most morphologically diverse terrestrial
mammalian species known to man; pedigree dogs are artificially selected
for extreme aesthetics dictated by formal Breed Standards, and
breed-related disorders linked to conformation are ubiquitous and
diverse. Brachycephaly–foreshortening of the facial skeleton–is a
discrete mutation that has been selected for in many popular dog breeds
e.g. the Bulldog, Pug, and French Bulldog. A chronic, debilitating
respiratory syndrome, whereby soft tissue blocks the airways,
predominantly affects dogs with this conformation, and thus is labelled
Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Syndrome (BOAS). Despite the name of
the syndrome, scientific evidence quantitatively linking brachycephaly
with BOAS is lacking, but it could aid efforts to select for healthier
conformations. Here we show, in an exploratory study of 700 dogs of
diverse breeds and conformations, and a confirmatory study of 154
brachycephalic dogs, that BOAS risk increases sharply in a non-linear
manner as relative muzzle length shortens. BOAS only occurred in dogs
whose muzzles comprised less than half their cranial lengths. Thicker
neck girths also increased BOAS risk in both populations: a risk factor
for human sleep apnoea and not previously realised in dogs; and obesity
was found to further increase BOAS risk. This study provides evidence
that breeding for brachycephaly leads to an increased risk of BOAS in
dogs, with risk increasing as the morphology becomes more exaggerated.
As such, dog breeders and buyers should be aware of this risk when
selecting dogs, and breeding organisations should actively discourage
exaggeration of this high-risk conformation in breed standards and the
show ring.
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0137496
----------------------
Brachycephalic Feline Noses
Ct and anatomical study of the relationship between head conformation and the nasolacrimal drainage system
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/j.jfms.2009.09.010
-------------------------
Flat-Faced Cats Are Even Weirder Than They Look
"If you are a light sleeper, they do tend to snore."
https://www.thedodo.com/close-to-home/flat-faced-cat-breed-health-problems
-----------------------------------------------------
Convergence and Divergence in the Evolution of Cat Skulls: Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Morphological Diversity
July 6, 2012
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0039752
-----------------------------------------------------
Evolution of Skull and Mandible Shape in Cats (Carnivora: Felidae)
2008
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2475670/
-----------------------------------------------------
Functional Morphology and the Evolution of Cats
1980
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1286&context=tnas
-----------------------------------------------------
Skulls shed new light on the evolution of the cat
July 10, 2012
https://phys.org/news/2012-07-skulls-evolution-cat.html
-----------------------------------------------------
This Fossil Skull Unearthed in Tibet Is the Oldest Big Cat Ever Found
November 12, 2013
The fossil belongs to a newly discovered species called Panthera blytheae and is between four and five million years old
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-fossil-skull-unearthed-in-tibet-is-the-oldest-big-cat-ever-found-180947677/
-----------------------------------------------------
CAT scans of sabertooth cats’ skulls unearth evolution of predatory behavior
October 31, 2018
https://dailybruin.com/2018/10/31/researches-uncover-sabertooth-tiger-bites-hard/
-----------------------------------------------------
Long in the Tooth: Evolution of Sabertooth Cat Cranial Shape
2008
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20445602?seq=1
-----------------------------------------------------
Fossils reveal saber-toothed cats may have pierced rivals’ skulls
May 31, 2019
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/fossils-reveal-saber-toothed-cats-may-have-pierced-rivals-skulls
-----------------------------------------------------
A skull of Machairodus horribilis and new evidence for gigantism as a mode of mosaic evolution in machairodonts (Felidae, Carnivora)
2016
http://www.ivpp.cas.cn/cbw/gjzdwxb/xbwzxz/201608/P020161024540721718686.pdf
-----------------------------------------------------
Smithsonian scientist confirms missing link in big cat evolution
1-8-2014
https://insider.si.edu/2014/01/smithsonian-scientist-confirms-missing-link-in-big-cat-evolution/
-----------------------------------------------------
Fossil Find Clears Up Big Cat Origins
2013
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/11/131112-big-cats-origin-tibet-animals-science/
------------------------------------------------------
Big cat, small cat: reconstructing body size evolution in living and extinct Felidae
15 June 2015
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jeb.12671
------------------------------------------------------
PALLAS CAT is the Wildest Cat in the World. PALLAS CAT - Rare, Vicious, Wild mountain CAT!
May 13, 2021
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ID7zchiVMqE
------------------------------------------------------
Morphological variation of the caudal fossa of domestic cat skulls assessed with CT and geometric morphometrics analysis
7-19-2017
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1098612X17730707
------------------------------------------------------
Variants in the Domestic Cat Genome: Shedding New Light on Feline Domestication
2015
https://www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?id=6976360&pid=12513&
------------------------------------------------------
How fancy cats evolved: The science of our most adorable pets
May 25, 2015
https://www.salon.com/2015/05/25/how_fancy_cats_evolved_the_science_of_our_most_adorable_pets/
------------------------------------------------------
Here's Why Cats Have Such Strange, Haunting Eyes, Explained by Science
30 JUNE 2018
https://www.sciencealert.com/here-s-why-cats-have-such-weird-eyes
------------------------------------------------------
Wild cat brains: An evolutionary curveball
Oct. 31, 2016
https://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2016/wild-cat-brains-an-evolutionary-curveball/
------------------------------------------------------
Cuddly kitty or killer? Evolution explains why cats are grumpy
https://www.nbcnews.com/sciencemain/cuddly-kitty-or-killer-evolution-explains-why-cats-are-grumpy-8C11073589
------------------------------------------------------
Brachycephalic Dogs And Cats
Breeds
To Watch In And Around Water – breeds to watch closely in and around
water because of their propensity to breathe in the water while swimming
or running around.
https://www.pve.net.au/44-brachycephalic/
{Could this be the reason why brachycephalic Africans are not very good swimmers}?
-----------------
The Genetics of Canine Skull Shape Variation
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3567726/
---------------
Ethnic Differences in BMI and Disease Risk
The
chance of developing diabetes, heart disease, and other weight-related
health risks increases with increasing body mass index (BMI). But theres
strong evidence that at any given BMI, these health risks are markedly
higher in some ethnic groups than others.
The Nurses
Health Study, for example, tracked patterns of weight gain and diabetes
development in 78,000 U.S. women, to see if there were any differences
by ethnic group. All women were healthy at the start of the study.
After 20 years, researchers found that at the same BMI, Asians had more
than double the risk of developing type 2 diabetes than whites;
Hispanics and blacks also had higher risks of diabetes than whites, but
to a lesser degree. Increases in weight over time were more harmful in
Asians than in the other ethnic groups: For every 11 pounds Asians
gained during adulthood, they had an 84 percent increase in their risk
of type 2 diabetes; Hispanics, blacks, and whites who gained weight also
had higher diabetes risks, but again, to a much lesser degree than
Asians. Several other studies have found that at the same BMI, Asians
have higher risks of hypertension and cardiovascular disease than their
white European counterparts, and a higher risk of dying early from
cardiovascular disease or any cause.
Researchers are
still teasing out why Asians have higher weight-related disease risks at
lower BMIs. One possible explanation is body fat. When compared to
white Europeans of the same BMI, Asians have 3 to 5 percent higher total
body fat. South Asians, in particular, have especially high levels of
body fat and are more prone to developing abdominal obesity, which may
account for their very high risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular
disease. In contrast, some studies have found that blacks have lower
body fat and higher lean muscle mass than whites at the same BMI, and
therefore, at the same BMI, may be at lower risk of obesity-related
diseases. (Keep in mind, though, that in the U.S., the prevalence of
obesity is higher in non-Hispanic blacks than in non-Hispanic whites, so
the overall burden of obesity-related diseases is still higher in this
group. Read more about obesity trends in the U.S. and other countries.)
While
genetic differences may be at the root of these different body fat
patterns in Asians and other ethnic groups, environmental factors seem
to be a much stronger force. For example, research suggests that
under-nutrition during fetal life, such as during the Chinese famine of
1954 to 1964, raises the risk of diabetes in adulthood, especially when
individuals live in nutritionally rich environments later in life. (Read
more about prenatal and early life influences on obesity.)
https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/obesity-prevention-source/ethnic-differences-in-bmi-and-disease-risk/
---------------------------
Ethnic differences in bone geometry between White, Black and South Asian men in the UK
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5004623/
----------------------------
Is Girls’ Generation the outcome of the Pleistocene mind?
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/02/is-girls-generation-the-outcome-of-the-pleistocene-mind/#.XF5nHrh7mcw
There’s
an excellent paper up at Cell right now, Modeling Recent Human
Evolution in Mice by Expression of a Selected EDAR Variant. It
synthesizes genomics, computational modeling, as well as the effective
execution of mouse models to explore non-pathological phenotypic
variation in humans. It was likely due the last element that this paper,
which pushes the boundary on human evolutionary genomics, found its way
to Cell (and the “impact factor” of course).
The focus
here is on EDAR, a locus you may have heard of before. By fiddling with
the EDAR locus researchers had earlier created “Asian mice.” More
specifically, mice which exhibit a set of phenotypes which are known to
distinguish East Asians from other populations, specifically around hair
form and skin gland development. More generally EDAR is implicated in
development of ectodermal tissues. That’s a very broad purview, so it
isn’t surprising that modifying this locus results in a host of
phenotypic changes. The figure above illustrates the modern distribution
of the mutation which is found in East Asians in HGDP populations.
One
thing to note is that the derived East Asian form of EDAR is found in
Amerindian populations which certainly diverged from East Asians >
10,000 years before the present (more likely 15-20,000 years before the
present). The two populations in West Eurasia where you find the derived
East Asian EDAR variant are Hazaras and Uyghurs, both likely the
products of recent admixture between East and West Eurasian populations.
In Melanesia the EDAR frequency is correlated with Austronesian
admixture. Not on the map, but also known, is that the Munda
(Austro-Asiatic) tribal populations of South Asia also have low, but
non-trivial, frequencies of East Asian EDAR. In this they are
exceptional among South Asian groups without recent East Asian
admixture. This lends credence to the idea that the Munda are
descendants in part of Austro-Asiatic peoples intrusive from Southeast
Asia, where most Austro-Asiatic languages are present.
And
yet one thing that jumps out at me is that there is no East Asian EDAR
in European populations, even in Russians. I am a bit confused by this
result, because of the possibility of Siberian-affiliated population
admixture with Europeans within the last 10,000 years, as adduced by
several researchers (this is not an obscure result, it manifests in
TreeMix repeatedly). The second figure shows the inferred region from
which the East Asian EDAR haplotype expanded over the past 30,000 years.
The authors utilized millions of forward simulations with a host of
parameters to model the expansion of EDAR, so that it fit the
distribution pattern that is realized (see the supplements here for the
parmeters). To make a long story short they infer that there was one
mutation on the order of ~30,000 years before the present, and that it
swept up in frequency driven by selection coefficients on the order of
~0.10 (10% increase relative fitness, which is incredibly powerful!).
This is on the extreme end of selective sweeps, and likely of the same
class as the haplotype blocks which characterize SLC24A5 and LCT (the
block is shorter, though that makes sense because of the deeper time
depth). Again, I am perplexed why such an ancient allele, which is found
in Amerindians, or Munda populations, is absent in Europeans who have
putative East Eurasian admixture. The whole does not cohere for me.
There is a weak point in one or more of my assumptions.
Then
there’s the section on the mouse model. To me this aspect was
ingenious, though I’m not particularly able to assess it on its
technicalities. The earlier usage of mouse models to test the effects of
mutations on EDAR was in the context of coarse copy number changes
which resulted in massive dosage changes of protein. The phenotypic
outcomes were rather extreme in that case. Here they used a “knockin”
model where they recreated the specific EDAR point mutation. Instead of
extreme phenotypes they found that the mice were much more normal in
their range of traits, though the hair form shifts were well aligned
with what occurred in humans. Additionally there were some changes in
the number of eccrine glands, with a larger number in the derived East
Asian EDAR carriers (with additive effect). Finally they noticed that
there were differences in mammary gland pad area and branching. None of
this is that surprising, EDAR is a significant regulatory gene which
shapes the peripheries and exterior of an organism.
To
double check the human relevance of what they found in the mouse model
they performed a genome-wide association in a large cohort of Han
Chinese. The correlations of particular traits were in the directions
that they expected; those individuals with East Asian EDAR variants had
thicker hair, shovel-shaped incisors, and a greater density of eccrine
glands. It is perhaps important to note that the frequency of the
derived variant is so high in Han populations that they didn’t have
enough homozygote ancestral genotypes to perform statistics, so their
comparisons involved heterozygotes with the derived mutant and also a
copy of the ancestral state. This is like SLC24A5 in Europeans, where it
is difficult to find individuals of European heritage who have double
copies of the non-European modal variant.
Let’s review
all the awesome things they did in this study. They dug deeply into the
evolutionary genomics of the region around the EDAR, concluding that
this haplotype was driven up in frequency from on ancestral variant
~30,000 years ago in a hard selective sweep. And a sweep of notable
strength in terms of selection coefficient. This may be one of the
largest effect targets of natural selection in the genome of
non-Africans over the past 50,000 years. Second, they used a humanized
mouse model to explore the range of phenotypes correlated with this
mutational change in East Asians. So you have a strong selection
coefficient on a locus, and, a range of traits associated with changes
on that locus. Third, they confirmed the correlation between the traits
and the mutation in humans, despite there being prior research in this
area (i.e., they reproduced). This is all great science, and shows the
power of collaboration between the groups.
Much of the
elegance and power of the paper applies to the discussion section as
well, but to be frank this is where things start falling apart for me.
You can get a sense of it in The New York Times piece, East Asian
Physical Traits Linked to 35,000-Year-Old Mutation. The headline here
points to a legitimately important inference from this line of research,
many salient physical characteristics of the human races seem to be due
to strong selection events at a few loci. In addition to EDAR I’m
thinking of the pigmentation loci, such as SLC24A5. I wouldn’t be
surprised if there was something similar for the epicanthic fold. If it
is visible, and defines between populations differences, it is generally
not genomically trivial. There’s usually a story underneath that
difference.
In the broad scale of human natural history
the problem that arises for me is that we have traits, we have genes
under selection, but we have very weak stories to explain the mechanism
and context of natural selection. Here there is a strong contrast with
the loci around lactase persistence and malaria resistance. In those
situations the causal mechanism for the selection seems relatively
clear. Critics of evolutionary psychology are wont to accuse the field
of ‘Just So’ storytelling, but the same problem crops up in the more
intellectually insulated domain of evolutionary genomics (in part
because the field is very new, and also mathematically and
computationally abstruse). To illustrate what I’m talking about I’m
going to quote from the discussion of the above paper:
A high density of eccrine glands is a key hominin adaptation that
enables efficient evapo-traspiration during vigorous activities such as
long-distance walking and running (Carrier et al., 1984; Bramble and
Lieberman, 2004). An increased density of eccrine glands in 370A
carriers might have been advantageous for East Asian hunter-gatherers
during warm and humid seasons, which hinder evapo-transpiration.
Geological records indicate that China was relatively warm and humid
between 40,000 and 32,000 years ago, but between32,000 and 15,000 years
ago the climate became cooler and drier before warming again at the
onset of the Holocene (Wang et al., 2001; Yuan et al., 2004). Throughout
this time period, however, China may have remained relatively humid due
to varying contribution from summer and winter monsoons.
High humidity, especially in the summers, may have provided a
seasonally selective advantage for individuals better able to
functionally activate more eccrine glands and thus sweat more
effectively (Kuno, 1956). To explore this hypothesis, greater precision
on when and where the allele was under selection—perhaps using ancient
DNA sources—in conjunction with more detailed archaeological and
climatic data are needed.
A climate adaptation is
always a good bet. The problem I have with this hypothesis is that
modern day gradients in the distribution of this allele are exactly the
reverse of what one might expect in terms of adaptation to heat and
humidity. Additionally, is there no cost to this adaptation? After the
initial sweep upward, the populations where the derived EDAR mutant is
found in high frequencies went through the incredible cold of the Last
Glacial Maximum, and groups like the Yakuts are known to have cold
adaptations today. Not only that, but the Amerindians from the arctic to
the tropics all exhibit a cold adapted body morphology, the historical
consequence of the long sojourn in Berengia.
Granted,
the authors are not so simplistic, and the somewhat disjointed
discussion alludes to the fact that EDAR has numerous phenotypic
effects, and it may be subject to diverse positive selection pressures.
This seems plausible on the surface, but this complexity of mechanism
seems ill-fitted to the fact that the signal of selection around this
locus is so clean and crisp. It seems that this is not going to be an
easy story to unpack, and there’s a good deal of implicit
acknowledgement of that fact in this paper. But tacked right at the end
of the main text is this whopper:
It is worth
noting that largely invisible structural changes resulting from the 370A
allele that might confer functional advantage, such as increased
eccrine gland number, are directly linked to visually obvious traits
such as hair phenotypes and breast size. This creates conditions in
which biases in mate preference could rapidly evolve and reinforce more
direct competitive advantages. Consequently, the cumulative selective
force acting over time on diverse traits caused by a single pleiotropic
mutation could have driven the rise and spread of 370A.
A
simple takeaway is that the initial climatic adaptation may have given
way to a cultural/sexual selective adaptation, whereby there was a
preference for “good hair” as exemplified by pre-Western East Asian
canons (black and lustrous), as well as a bias toward small breasts.
This aspect gets picked up in The New York Times piece of course. I’ll
quote again:
But Joshua Akey, a geneticist at the
University of Washington in Seattle, said he thought the more likely
cause of the gene’s spread among East Asians was sexual selection. Thick
hair and small breasts are visible sexual signals which, if preferred
by men, could quickly become more common as the carriers had more
children. The genes underlying conspicuous traits, like blue eyes and
blond hair in Europeans, have very strong signals of selection, Dr. Akey
said, and the sexually visible effects of EDAR are likely to have been
stronger drivers of natural selection than sweat glands.
The
passage here is ambiguous because the author of the article, Nick Wade,
doesn’t use quotes, and I don’t know what is Akey and what is Wade’s
gloss on Akey. For example, for theoretical reasons of reproductive skew
(a few men can have many children) in general sexual selection is
considered to be driven most often by female preference for male
phenotypes. I assume Akey knows this, so I suspect that that section is
Wade’s gloss (albeit, a reasonable one given the proposition of
preference for smaller breasts). The main question on my mind is how
seriously prominent population geneticists such as Joshua Akey actually
take sexual selection to be as a force driving variation and selection
in human populations. It seems that quite often sexual selection is
presented as a deus ex machina. A phenomenon which can rescue our
confusion as to the origins of a particular suite of traits. But our
assessment of the likelihood of sexual selection presumably has to be
premised on prior expectations informed by a balance of different forces
one can gauge from the literature, and here my knowledge of the current
sexual selection literature is weak. Perhaps my skepticism is premised
on my ignorance, and the population geneticists who proffer up this
explanation are more informed as to the state of the literature.
All
this brings me back to the farcical title. When this paper first made
news last week I was having dinner with a friend of Japanese heritage
(who spent his elementary school years in Japan). I asked him point
blank, “Do you like small breasts?” His initial response was “WTF!?!
Razib,” but as a mouse geneticist he understood the thrust of my
question after I outlined the above results to him. From personal
communication with many East Asian American males I am not convinced
that there is a overwhelmingly strong preference for small breasts
within this subset of the population. But the key here is American.
These are individuals immersed in American culture. The norms no doubt
differ in East Asia. The typical visual representation of celebrity East
Asian females that we see in the American media depict individuals who
are slimmer and more understated in their secondary sexual
characteristics than is the norm among Western female celebrities (e.g.,
Gong Li, the new crop of Korean pop stars, even taking into account the
plastc surgery of the latter). Part of this is no doubt the reality
that the normal range of variation across the population differs, and
part of it may be the nature of aesthetic preferences.
But
the possibility of deep rooted psychological reasons driving sexual
selection (to my knowledge there was no culture which spanned South
China and Siberia) brings us back to old ideas about the Pleistocene
mind. And, it brings us back to evolutionary psychology, a field which
is the whipping boy of both skeptics of the utility of evolutionary
science in understanding human nature, and rigorous practitioners of
evolutionary biology. And yet here it is not the evolutionary
psychologists, but rock-ribbed statistical geneticists who I often see
being quoted in the media invoking sexual selection. But do we know it
is sexual selection, or is it just our best guess? Because more often
than not best guesses are wrong (though best guesses are much more
likely to be right than worst guesses!).
Evolutionary
genomics has come a long way in the past 10 years. We know, for example,
the genetic architecture and some aspects of the natural history of
many traits. But, there are still shortcomings. Lactase persistence is
the exception to the rule. Even a phenotype as straightforward as human
pigmentation has no undisputed answer as to why it has been the repeated
target of selection across Eurasia over the past 40,000 years.
Oftentimes the right answer is simply that we just don’t know.
---------------------
{If you were going to say what race of humans were flat faced, you would probably
say Oriental humans.
Are Orientals the flat faced version of humans? Well yes}.
---------------------------
Obesity Is Associated With a Lower Resting Oxygen Saturation in
the Ambulatory Elderly: Results From the Cardiovascular Health Study
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3885157/
--------------------------
Dark skin decreases the accuracy of pulse oximeters at low oxygen saturation: the effects of oximeter probe type and gender.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18048893
-------------------------
Effects of Skin Pigmentation on Pulse Oximeter Accuracy at Low Saturation
http://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1942319
-------------------------
A
gene thought to be involved in helping people to cope with low levels
of oxygen when they live at high altitudes could become a target for new
drugs to treat heart disease at low altitude
https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/gene-which-helps-people-cope-with-low-oxygen-levels-at-high-altitudes-could-become-target-for-new-10436227.html
Researchers
say mice with variants of the endothelin receptor type B gene perform
better than ordinary mice when subjected to low levels of oxygen
A
gene thought to be involved in helping people to cope with low levels
of oxygen when they live at high altitudes could become a target for new
drugs to treat heart disease at low altitude, scientists have found.
Variants
of the gene found in the genome of Ethiopians who live most of their
lives several thousand feet above sea level are believed to play a key
role in helping people overcome the problems linked with low-oxygen
concentrations when living at high-altitudes.
Now
researchers have found that laboratory mice with low-level variants of
the endothelin receptor type B (EDNRB) gene perform better than ordinary
mice when subjected to low concentrations of oxygen – which could also
help to explain why East Africans tend to be good at endurance sports
such as long-distance running.
“This is the first
demonstration that a gene involved in high-altitude adaptation is
critical in protecting cardiac function in moderate to severe hypoxia
[low oxygen] at sea level,” said Gabriel Haddad of the University of
California San Diego.
---------------------------
Nocturnal
haemoglobin oxygen desaturation inurban and rural East African
paediatric cohorts withand without sickle cell anaemia: a
cross-sectionalstudy
https://adc.bmj.com/content/archdischild/early/2015/12/22/archdischild-2014-306468.full.pdf
-------------------------
{Notice how Blacks faces and noses are different than whites, and why blacks have different distinct voices than whites}.
-------------------------
Do people of different races have different voices?
https://io9.gizmodo.com/do-people-of-different-races-have-different-voices-5928125
-------------------------
Kenya introduces ambitious efforts to tackle pneumonia
https://clintonhealthaccess.org/kenya-introduces-ambitious-efforts-to-tackle-pneumonia/
------------------------
Three High-Altitude Peoples, Three Adaptations to Thin Air
Indigenous
people in the Andes Mountains, Tibetan Plateau, and Ethiopian Highlands
have different methods for coping with oxygen-thin air.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2004/02/high-altitude-adaptations-evolution/
------------------------
How does altitude affect the body and why does it affect people differently?
http://theconversation.com/how-does-altitude-affect-the-body-and-why-does-it-affect-people-differently-95657
-------------------------
Curious Kids: Why do our ears pop?
http://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-our-ears-pop-97259
{The air pressure of the climate a person lives in can determine their blood pressure}.
-------------------------
Low oxygen levels could drive cancer growth, research suggests
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120503194219.htm
--------------------------
What's the Connection? Your Heart Can Affect Your Breathing
https://www.nationaljewish.org/health-insights/health-infographics/whats-the-connection-your-heart-can-affect-your-breathing
--------------------------
The incredible naked mole rat can survive with hardly any oxygen
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2128428-the-incredible-naked-mole-rat-can-survive-with-hardly-any-oxygen/
--------------------------
Effects of mild lack of oxygen at birth 'long-term'
https://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/health/effects-of-mild-lack-of-oxygen-at-birth-longterm-29907475.html
-------------------------
Could a Few Extra Pounds Help You Live Longer?
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/could-a-few-extra-pounds-help-you-live-longer/
------------------------
Central corneal thickness of Caucasians, Chinese, Hispanics, Filipinos, African Americans, and Japanese in a glaucoma clinic.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15582076
-----------------------
Atrial fibrillation among African Americans, Hispanics and Caucasians: clinical features and outcomes from the AFFIRM trial.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16573295
-----------------------
{We can clearly see that Orientals faces mutated and that the skin of Orientals is still white,
and they were in the cold climates as well.
Were Oriental people once white skinned people who eventually had a genetic mutation in their face?
Were Oriental people a product of
breeding with Denisovans? We see other theories on how if humans were
related to Heidelbergensis, Graecopithecus, Australopithecus, Homo
Habilis and Homo erectus as well.
In Eurasia, of course being two different continents being pushed together, you are going
to find dark skinned people and light skinned people. It is only a matter of time that
white Orientals would breed with brown
skin people. Look at how many people in Indonesia and Malaysia look very
brown and almost Arabic, compared to being a white Oriental from the
North of Asia. Look at how Eskimo people have white skin. Many however
claim that white
people started to breed with Orientals
in the northern parts of Asia, and this is why we see more white
Orientals in the Northern part of Asia}.
--------------------
Comparison of vaginal shapes in Afro-American, caucasian and hispanic women as seen with vinyl polysiloxane casting.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10895030
-------------------
Racial Differences in Pelvic Anatomy by Magnetic Resonance Imaging
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593128/
---------------------
The incidence of urinary incontinence across Asian, black, and white women in the United States.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20042169
---------------------
Ethnic differences in pelvic floor muscle strength and endurance in South African women.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24464469
--------------
Asian Hair Types
https://theidleman.com/blogs/grooming/race-differences-hair-types
You
might be wondering why Asian hair is so straight. Well, Asian hair
grows from a round follicle which is responsible for that typically
straight hair. Plus, it makes it extremely versatile when it comes to
different hair styles. There are some differences in hair according to
different types of Asians. Chinese hair and Oriental Asian hair is
usually straight and is also the typical kind of Asian thin hair. East
Asian hair, in particular, is stronger, thicker, more resistant to
damages and hair loss when compared to other hair types.
Not
only is Asian hair less prone to hair loss, but Asian hair growth is
also remarkable. The average hair growth in a year is 15.3cm (1.3cm per
month) which makes Asian hair the fastest growing type as well as the
thickest hair in the world. If you're wondering why does Asian hair grow
so fast, it's because it also has the longest growth cycle lasting as
far as 9 years.
Race Differences in Hair Types
Asian Hair Vs Caucasian Hair
If
you're wondering why Asian hair is so thick, it's because East Asian
hair cuticles are much thicker and hair diameter is twice the size of
Caucasian hair. Even though Asian hair types normally have fewer hair
than Caucasians, the thickness of their hair shafts creates the
impression of a fuller head of hair. It's also pretty rare to see a bald
Asian as they experience less shedding of hair. It's also argued that
for each balding Asian man there are three balding Caucasians.
Alopecia in Black Hair
Traction
alopecia is the most common kind of hair loss amongst black people.
That is caused by putting hair under stress through tight hairstyles
such as braids and cornrows. However, black hair loss is also caused by
genetic factors.
In this case, DHT is the hormone
responsible for the shrinking of hair follicles and causes the hair to
grow thinner and eventually leading to the closing up of hair follicles
altogether. Once that happens, baldness becomes irreversible. Even
though the highest number of cases of androgenetic alopecia can be found
in Caucasian males, Afro hair follows suit. Another cause of hair loss
is trichophyton tonsurans, a fungal hair loss type which causes
localised hair loss and is most common in Afro hair.
Black Hair Breakage
As
we've mentioned before, black hair is naturally more delicate and
therefore it breaks more easily. However, black hair breakage can be
also induced via the frequent use of relaxers and hair colourants which
eventually lead to hair thinning. More importantly, this can also damage
the root which leads to more permanent hair loss.
Regrow Black Hair
Unfortunately,
there isn't one magic solution to hair loss. However, there are some
treatments and hair growth products for black hair that can help.
Natural products such as vitamins and supplements can, of course,
contribute to the general health of your hair and are a fundamental part
of a balanced diet. The only proven treatments for hair growth are a
combination of Propecia and minoxidil which can work on all types of
hair. However, it's always best to consult a professional to discuss
your specific case.
If you're wondering how to make
black male hair grow faster, there are no treatments that can guarantee
that result or make your hair longer. It's crucial to do everything in
your power to prevent your hair from breaking such as avoiding chemical
relaxers and hairstyles that can cause thinning.
Caucasian Hair Types
Caucasian
hair has the highest density amongst the different hair types. There
are many different textures of Caucasian hair as it can be fine,
straight, coarse or wavy and curly. Plus, there's an interesting range
of shades from red to browns and the lightest end of the spectrum with
blonde. Blondes have the greatest density with an average of 146.000
hairs on their heads followed by black hair with 110.000, brunettes with
100.000 and lastly red heads with 86.000.
--------------------
7 Reasons You're Drunker Than Your Friends
Experts weigh in on genetic, phsycial factors that affect alcohol tolerance.
https://abcnews.go.com/Health/Wellness/reasons-drunker-friends/story?id=14221338
---------------
For Asians, A Low BMI Doesn't Mean Healthy; Hypertension, Cholesterol Rates Equal To Blacks, Hispanics, And Whites
https://www.medicaldaily.com/asians-low-bmi-doesnt-mean-healthy-hypertension-cholesterol-rates-equal-blacks-hispanics-and-whites
---------------
Why Is the Obesity Rate So Low in Japan and High in the U.S.? Some Possible Economic Explanations
https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/14321/1/tr06-02s.pdf
-------------------
Study of Alaska Natives confirms salmon-rich diet prevents diabetes, heart disease
2011
https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/article/study-alaska-natives-confirms-salmon-rich-diet-prevents-diabetes-heart-disease/2011/03/30/
--------------------
How Brain-Damaging Mercury Puts Arctic Kids at Risk
2015
Inuit children, exposed in the womb, have lower IQs because their mothers eat whale meat and other foods tainted with contaminants that drift north.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/03/150327-inuit-mercury-beluga-iq-canada-nunavik-arctic-faroe-islands/
---------------------------
Mercury in Fish Linked to High Blood Pressure
2015
https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=106261
----------------------------
Modern human origins: multiregional evolution of autosomes and East Asia origin of Y and mtDNA
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/101410v5
---------------------------
Parasite Prevalence and the Worldwide Distribution of Cognitive Ability
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44888621_Parasite_Prevalence_and_the_Worldwide_Distribution_of_Cognitive_Ability
-----------------------------
China is Cheating the World Student Rankings System
Enough
is enough: Beijing must supply national data to assessors and not
simply the results of a small minority of elite students
http://world.time.com/2013/12/04/china-is-cheating-the-world-student-rankings-system/
---------------------
Are Asians the Smartest Race?
http://www.8asians.com/2011/05/27/are-asians-the-smartest-race/
{Orientals are smart, but not as smart as a white Einstein, white Da Vinci or White Tesla, China cheats more on IQ tests}.
---------------
IQ being lowered in America
https://www.google.com/search?source=hp&ei=SN5rXLDzEMe0tQXGu5mICA&q=iq+being+lowered+in+america&btnK=Google+Search&oq=iq+being+lowered+in+america&gs_l=psy-ab.3..33i299.1454.1454..2327...0.0..0.89.163.2......0....2j1..gws-wiz.....0.ghj71vcU3hs
-----------
Average IQ by country - Race and IQ World Map
https://ourworldindata.org/intelligence
-------------------
Minority Ethnic Pupils in the Longitudinal Study of Young People in England
Extension Report on Performance in Public Examinations at Age 16
2008
Key findings
Raw ethnic group differences in attainment at age 16
The mean score in the KS3 national tests in English, mathematics and science for Pakistani,
Bangladeshi, Black Caribbean and Black African groups were all substantially below the mean
for White British pupils, and to roughly the same extent, by the equivalent of over a whole year
of progress in terms of National Curriculum levels. At KS4, the mean score for Black
Caribbean pupils is still significantly lower than White British. However, the mean score for
Pakistani pupils is only just below the White British mean, and the mean scores for
Bangladeshi and Black African pupils do not differ significantly from the mean for White British
pupils. At KS3, Indian pupils were only marginally ahead of White British, but at KS4 they are
substantially ahead.
https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/7916/1/DCSF-RR029.pdf
-------------------
What IQ Tests Test
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.110.9895&rep=rep1&type=pdf
-------------------
Does IQ Really Predict Job Performance?
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4557354/
---------------------
Human Development Reports
Expected years of schooling (years)
http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/69706
---------------
Can reading make you smarter?
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/23/can-reading-make-you-smarter
---------------
Cal Newport on Why We'll Look Back at Our Smartphones Like Cigarettes
https://www.gq.com/story/cal-newport-digital-minimalism
---------------
{Now with the use of smartphones, we can see how cheating is even much easier}.
----------------
Poll: U.S. Teens Say Cheating Widespread
https://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/story?id=131890&page=1
----------------
A Bi-Hemispheric and Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Human Origins
http://anthropogenesis.kinshipstudies.org/blog/2017/01/25/world-science-en-route-from-out-of-africa-to-out-of-america-first-stop-is-out-of-asia/
--------------
Natives of South America
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NSRW_Natives_of_South_America.png
--------------
Natives of North America
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NSRW_Natives_of_North_America.png
-----------
Asiatic Types
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LA2-NSRW-1-0149.jpg
------------
Asian Bodies That Proudly Defy An Archetype
“You barely see Asian-American bodies in media. But when you do, you only see perfect, skinny ones.”
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/asian-american-body-image_us_5aea06bfe4b06748dc8effe7
----------
Why are so many Asians so thin?
https://www.quora.com/Why-are-so-many-Asians-so-thin
-----------
10 Reasons Why Asians Are so Slim
https://brightside.me/inspiration-health/10-reasons-why-asians-are-so-slim-366160/
-------------------
The Evolution of Looks and Expectations of Asian Eyelid and Eye Appearance
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536060/
--------------------
{We can see how many Eskimos and
Orientals are very white in skin color also. We can see how many
Orientals get darker skin color the more south you go in East Asia. We
can even see how Eskimo people would make wooden slits made for glasses
to protect their eyes from the UV rays of the Sun}.
------------
Where on Earth has the highest UV?
https://www.niwa.co.nz/sites/niwa.co.nz/files/import/attachments/Liley_2.pdf
Abstract. Ultraviolet intensities in the New Zealand summer are extreme on the international UV Index scale, but it reflects the risk of erythema, and UVI’s origin in Canada, rather than the global range. We used 7 years of TOMS v 8 estimates of surface UV to review global peak intensities, and to identify where the highest UV occurs. Throughout the Altiplano region of Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina, UVI values exceed 20. The highest UVI of 25 was in the grid cell centred on Cuzco, in southern Peru (13.5° S, 3360 m a.s.l.). Peak values on the edge of the Antarctic Plateau also exceed the highest UVI in New Zealand, and are comparable to those at sea level in the tropics. The time of year for peak UV varies smoothly from spring in the Antarctic, under the annual ozone hole, through SH summer at mid-latitudes, March-April in the tropics, to NH summer in the northern extra-tropics.
A recent study showed that peak UVI values in NZ are about 40% more than at similar latitudes in North America (McKenzie et al., 2006).
Date of peak UV
Finally, in Figure 4 we show the day of year on which the peak UVI values occurred. Notice that the peak UVI in Antarctica occurs in early December when the effects of the Antarctic ozone hole are still present, and from Figure 2 this peak value is significantly more that at mid-latitudes such as New Zealand. Furthermore, during the period, there are 24 hours of daylight in Antarctica, so the total daily dose can be further enhanced compared with other locations.
------------
{We can see that many giant trees grow along the latitudes of where there are many intense UV rays}.
---------------
The Wild Experiment That Showed Evolution in Real Time
By
placing wild mice in large outdoor enclosures, an ambitious team of
scientists has illustrated the full process of natural selection in a
single study.
https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/01/unprecedentedly-thorough-evolution-experiment/581521/
-----------------
Blepharitis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blepharitis
Blepharitis is one of the most common ocular conditions characterized
by inflammation, scaling, reddening, and crusting of the eyelid. This
condition may also cause burning, itching, or a grainy sensation when
introducing foreign objects or substances to the eye. Although
blepharitis is not sight-threatening, it can lead to permanent
alterations of the eyelid margin. The overall etiology is a result of
bacteria and inflammation from congested meibomian oil glands at the
base of each eyelash. Other conditions may give rise to blepharitis,
whether they be infectious or noninfectious, including, but not limited
to, bacterial infections or allergies.
Causes:
Trauma
Chemical
Radiation
Surgical
Thermal
-------------------
9 Places You Should Never Swim (Never Ever!)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhrctVyD4JI----------------------
Was there an ancient nuclear war
https://www.beyondsciencetv.com/2017/05/31/was-there-an-ancient-nuclear-war/
-------------------------
The Mohenjo Daro ‘Massacre’
https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/mohenjo-daro-massacre-00819
------------------------
How fancy cats evolved: The science of our most adorable pets
https://www.salon.com/2015/05/25/how_fancy_cats_evolved_the_science_of_our_most_adorable_pets/
------------
Skulls from the Past: Archaeological Negotiations of Scientific Racism
https://www.archaeologybulletin.org/articles/10.5334/bha-590/
------------
China unveils technology to create SUPER-HUMANS via hyper-muscular test-tube dogs
https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/828735/China-clone-humans-super-soldier-breed-dog-genetic-engineer
----------------
8. From Collaboration to Conflict: The Racial Survey of 1923-1929
https://books.openedition.org/obp/2386?lang=en
-------------
Evaluation of Cephalic Indices: A Clue for Racial and Sex Diversity
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a5a9/5e0f2f8a851e84edd991841fd3b40ae6e041.pdf
--------------
Human Differentiation
Evolution of Racial Characteristics
http://www.internetlooks.com/humandifferentiation.html
-----------------------
Why is it so hard to see an Asian American football player in NFL and college football?
https://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-so-hard-to-see-an-Asian-American-football-player-in-NFL-and-college-football
--------------------------
BMI discriminates against black people – and everyone else too
https://metro.co.uk/2018/03/30/bmi-discriminates-against-black-people-and-everyone-else-too-7421228/
-----------------
8 Health Conditions That Disproportionately Affect Black Women
https://www.self.com/story/black-women-health-conditions
-----------
Exercise Not As Beneficial For Black Girls As Whites, Study Says
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/05/exercise-black-women-benefit-study_n_1571226.html
-------------
The Brutality Report - The Art of Glenn McCoy
My
strong hunch is that political cartoonist Glenn McCoy earned his
current status through quotas. As the only rabid right-winger in the New
York Times' online cartoon roster, McCoy carries a special burden.
https://www.vice.com/en_au/article/yv5zvk/the-brutality-report-the-art-of-glenn-mccoy
-------------
Biggest share of whites in U.S. are Boomers, but for minority groups it’s Millennials or younger
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/07/biggest-share-of-whites-in-u-s-are-boomers-but-for-minority-groups-its-millennials-or-younger/
---------------
Is It True That Black Don’t Crack?
https://www.refinery29.com/en-gb/ageing-different-races-wrinkles
----------------
Can Knowing Your Somatotype Help You Change Your Body Composition?
https://inbodyusa.com/blogs/inbodyblog/can-knowing-your-somatotype-help-you-change-your-body-composition/
----------------
Aging and Ageism: Cultural Influences
https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/90251_Chapter_2_Pages_from_Chonody_Social_Work_Practice_With_Older_Adults.pdf
----------------
{We see that Oriental people have flat faces and small noses, while we see that Jews have
giant noses.
Here is the thing, we have Jews as some of the higher IQs and breaking some world records in
weightlifting and sports. However, many of these so-called Jews are actually biologically white.
It is sad when you see some white Jew and he honestly does not even identify as being
white, but rather being a Jew. I have seen some of the whitest Aryan people in the world
claim that they are a Jew, and that they are not white. I know the type, and they really do
think that they are a true Jew of the Bible, and are in no way connected to being biologically
white
in any way or form. It just seems like it is just some white Khazarian
European that converted to Judaism, and then now somehow he is no longer
biologically white or European.
Many Jews have a higher percentage of
Arabic DNA, and why we must keep Jews separate from a white ethno-state.
Many of these so-called white Jews are not even fully white, and they
are a mixed race ethno-religious group of people.
The white race is the chosen race, not these Arabic degenerates.
Some people will say that white Aryans were the true chosen people of the Bible, and these
half Gypsy and Half Arab Jews are
ruining the good name of the Biblical people while trying to usurp the
title of calling themselves the chosen race.
We should
deport all Jews away from white western society and Europe, and ship all
Jews back to Israel. We do not want western society to inherit these
brachycephalic Jewish problems and genetic diseases}.
------------
Eschewing the Nose Job in Image-Conscious L.A.
https://forward.com/sisterhood/322508/the-nose-job-in-la/
-----------------
Nose Jobs Are No Longer A Thing Among Teenage Jewish Girls
https://www.businessinsider.com/nose-job-numbers-shoot-down-for-jews-2012-6
-----------------
What's with Jews and their noses?
https://www.theapricity.com/forum/archive/index.php/t-65358.html
-----------------
Let's Talk about Chelsea Peretti's Nose
http://celestiaward.blogspot.com/2014/12/lets-talk-about-chelsea-perettis-nose.html
-----------------
Of Mongrels and Jews: The Deconstruction of Racialised Identities in White Supremacist Discourse
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13504639752050
ABSTRACT
This
research explores the construction of race and mixed race identities in
a wide variety of white supremacist newsletters and periodicals
published between 1969 and 1993. While traditional accounts of the white
supremacist movement treat it as a movement concerned with race
relations, I read this discourse as a site of the construction of race.
In white supremacist discourse, interracial sexuality is defined as the
ultimate abomination, and mixed race people pose a particularly strong
threat. This paper explores the ways in which mixed race people, and
Jews in particular, threaten the construction of a supposedly pure white
racial identity. Drawing upon the insights of poststructuralism, this
analysis will explore the role of boundary maintenance and the threat of
border crossings in the process of constructing racial identities.
------------------
They're Not Jews. They're MAGA People. And They Run Israel
https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-they-re-not-jews-they-re-maga-people-and-they-run-israel-1.6908864
---------------
Are Jews White? It's a Mistake Even to Ask
https://prospect.org/article/are-jews-white-its-mistake-even-ask
---------------
What makes African Americans much more dominant in the game of Basketball
https://www.reddit.com/r/nba/comments/27htfb/what_makes_african_americans_much_more_dominant/
{Black people are not much better in football, basketball or baseball, it is that
many whites become scientists and inventors. I even honestly did not have many
problems with having blacks ever being a better athlete than me in sports. I will
say that blacks are pretty fast which makes them good in sports, white people
often have more types of other strengths over blacks, and why you see a lot of white quarterbacks, linemen, coaches, etc.
There are a lot of
biologically white American and biologically white Jewish basketball
players that are as good as any black. Whites would rather become
doctors
and inventors to make a living, instead of playing some basketball game
and not really contributing anything that great to humanity.
There are many more important things to life than football and basketball, I wish that many
of you would grow up and stop trying to worship these people playing basketball and football
that are not even that good sometimes, please stop. So what if some guy can score over 40 points
a game because he hogs the basketball, then all of you make the biggest deal out of it.
It is sad seeing all these people try to glorify a monkey throwing a basketball around, rather
than an inventor or scientists that just invented a new invention or medical cure. Shame on the
people of America, and shame on humanity for the way many of you are acting.
Blacks and Mexicans that are trying to act like these gangsters are putting the rest of humanity at risk.
If I were in power I would be thinking
how I could fix the problems in many of the degenerate black and Mexican
gangster communities. Honestly, we would be better off just deporting a
lot of this scum to Africa.
Then you see areas that are nice all
white and very nice neighborhoods, and there is no crude black or
Mexican gangster trash running around trying to ruin everything.
We do not like how you just see some
black or mulatto kid on the streets, and he is just starting to form
into wanting to grow up acting like some black gangster rapper. Honestly
the person wasn't that bad starting out, then you see them regress into
the ghetto hood rat they are over the course of many years. Then before
you know it, some kid who was not too bad at one point, has now evolved
into a ghetto hood rat. The best thing and almost the only thing that
will save America and first world nations is to kick out the blacks and many brown Hispanics
and Arabs. If we don't kick out many of
these groups, we will have the rest of the world turn into a crude
African ghetto or Muslim Ghetto}.
--------------
THIRTY YEARS OF RESEARCH ON RACE DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE ABILITY
https://www1.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/30years/Rushton-Jensen30years.pdf
----------------
Are Jews Smarter?
http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/culture/features/1478/
{Biologically white Jews seem to be smarter than Gypsy Jews. Many of these so-called
white skinned Jews you see running around are really just a hybrid European race}.
---------------------------------------------
The “Uniqueness” of Ashkenazi Jewish Ancestry is Important for Health
https://blog.23andme.com/ancestry/the-uniqueness-of-ashkenazi-jewish-ancestry-is-important-for-health/
------------------------------------------
"Cutting Off Your Nose to Spite Your Race": Jewish Stereotypes, Media Images, Cultural Hybridity
https://www.jstor.org/stable/42944413?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents\
{Some Jews say they are the chosen
race, yet we see how many of these Jews have giant noses and ears, and
even go as far as to have plastic surgery to hide these features. Then
Jews go and say how Jews are somehow the chosen race. Even when Jews
have been kicked out of dozens of countries, and why many nations are
aware of how Jews will try to bring down nations. We do not believe that
Jews are anymore chosen than anyone else. These Jews are really no
better than many types of Gypsy cultures. If anyone is the chosen race
it is white people, and not these Arab looking people with Arab looking
features. Of course we do not want to say that big ears and a big nose
is bad, but some of these 1/3rd Arab Jews do have undesireable traits.
Many people dont want that Middle Eastern giant Arabic schnoz that
sticks out. These Arabic traits are not desired traits compared to the true chosen white
Aryans and white people. If I were to design humans I would try to phase
out many of these degenerate Arab, African, Mexican and watered down bloodlines.
We must concentrate on saving humanity and making white people the
majority future race over these Arabs, blacks and Mexicans}.
------------------------------------------------
Genes for nose shape found
Date:
May 19, 2016
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/05/160519081832.htm
------------------------------------------------
Do Jews Have Big Noses?!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nxnPpXP3UEk
{We disagree with the following video,
and that many Jews have way bigger noses than many people. Yet when you
compare big nosed Jews to big nosed Italians, it can be about equal. We
see what the guy in the video is trying to say, yet Jews have way larger
noses than other races on average, such as Jews have way bigger noses
than Orientals. African blacks many times have wider noses.
Many say that the genes that have this
giant Jewish nose are also found in Arabs and some Italians, even some
Irish are known for having big ears even. We would say that many Eastern
Europeans also have a big nose and ear features as well. We would say
that Nordic white people have smaller noses than Africans. Some say that
Nordic people have smaller noses because they evolved in the cold
climate, and that blacks have wider noses because they evolved in a
hotter climate. The reason why Nordic humans have thinner noses than brown races is that Nordic humans are not a brown Denisovan subspecies.
It is widely up for debate if certain races of humans
have been around longer than others. We appreciate the unique diversity
in different features of different races, and why we promote segregation
to save different races such as the white race from going extinct}.
---------------------------------------------------------
A new take on the 19th-century skull collection of Samuel Morton
2018
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/10/181004143943.htm
--------------------------------------------------
The Jews: a Study of Race and Environment
1911
Twelve skulls found in Basel in a cemetery dating from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries two were dolichocephalic, while the remainder were brachycephalic, the total average being 84.6. The same variability occurs in other finds, but the skulls of most of the Sephardim—or Spanish and Portuguese Jews—are dolichocephalic.
https://www.nature.com/articles/086578a0
----------------------------------------------------
Popular Science Monthly/Volume 55/August 1899/Are Jews Jews?
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_55/August_1899/Are_Jews_Jews%3F
---------------------------------------------------
Is race a factor in sports success?
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/aug/25/race.olympics2008
{We think that success in sports has to
do with training, race, genetics, nutrition and the culture that you are
brought up in as well}.
--------------------------------------------------------
Ethnicity.
Research shows that Caucasian and Asian women are more likely to
develop osteoporosis than women of other ethnic backgrounds. Hip
fractures are also twice as likely to happen in Caucasian women as in
African-American women.
https://www.webmd.com/osteoporosis/guide/osteoporosis-risk-factors
---------------------------------------------------------
Ancient Man and His First Civilizations
http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/China_2.htm
{One theory to why all races can give
birth to albino children is because whites were the original humans, and
all other races have these white traits already built into their DNA.
White people have the most variety of colors, while black people have
very few colors. Do you notice how some poisonus animals have certain
skin colors as a warning, this goes for the same as black people. This
is a warning not to breed with blacks, including Arabs and Mexicans, and
that blacks, Arabs and Mexicans mostly have become a degenerate messed
off race that needs the majority of them to be sterilized in order to
improve their own races, and get rid of many of the lower IQ blacks and
Muslims that are a nuisance to our society. This must be done for the
better part of humanity and first world civilizations to survive over
many of these third world low IQ degenerates invading and ruining
Europe, America and the best parts of society as we speak
Remember
what I am offering for all races is to reduce the degenerate population
so that the better part of blacks, brown people and white people can
live without so many degenerates, and to better each race. This is so not
only would a black be good at basketball, but they would also have a
high IQ instead of being some low IQ degenerate that does not contribute
anything to society}.
-------------------------------------------------
Most people have pale palms which do not tan
Result of a quick look on the internet
Why do black people have white palm since all their bodies is black ?
Best Answer - Chosen by Voters
Simple: Because the skin of the palms always has very little
melanocytes (pigment producing cells) so even the darkest of people may
have pale palms.
Also, it might interest you to know that from person to person the
number of melanocytes doesn't vary all that much. It's just the amount
of melanin that they produce which varies a lot.
https://vitamindwiki.com/Most+people+have+pale+palms+which+do+not+tan
------------------------------
Why cant you get a tan on your palms?
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_cant_you_get_a_tan_on_your_palmsSkin contains the pigment melanin which is activated by exposure to light. The palms of your hands and the soles of your feet have much thicker layers of skin due to their regular contact and friction with other objects (the ground, tools, etc).
Melanocytes exist in the dermal layers of your palms and soles, but are buried beneath the more callous layers and are rarely directed at the sun. You could in theory try to tan your hands but the results would be pretty minimal compared to the rest of your body.
{We can clearly see all of the white features already built into blacks, everything from
blacks having white palms, to blacks being born as white albino people, and even being
able to have white children as well}.
-----------------------------------------------
The Genes for White Skin Didn’t Develop in Europe, UPenn Study Finds
Looking at genomes from different populations all over the African continent, researchers found the genetic variants responsible for skin pigmentation namely: SLC24A5, MFSD12, DDB1, TMEM138, OCA2, and HERC2. Geneticist Sarah Tishkoff was the senior author on this study. She said that in their paper, she and colleagues “show that mutations influencing light and dark skin have been around for a long time, since before the origin of modern humans.”
Our ancient ancestor Australopithecus, which lived in Eastern Africa between 3.85 and 2.95 million years ago, probably had light skin underneath dark fur. Chimps, one of our closest living relatives, are the same way. Since their fur protects them from the sun, there’s no need for more melanin.
At some point, an ancestor of ours was born without all that tremendous body hair. It was thought that shortly after, this hominin developed dark skin to protect it against harsh UV rays. So our oldest hairless ancestor may have had white skin, but only for a brief period.
{Theory: If we did originate from Africa, could we have originated from white skinned African beings. Now we see how everything is coming together and starting to make sense}.
----------------------------------------------
THE YELLOW MEN OF CENTRAL AFRICA
https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1903.5.3.02a00080
The fact that there are large numbers of indigenes in the remote parts of the African continent whose skin is of bright copper color and whose physiognomy is quite different from that of the typical negro, is one comparatively little known to men of science, and is a source of surprise to the general public, although students of African anthropology and explorers of the interior of the continent are well aware of its occurrence. In my journeyings in the great Congo- Zambezi region I found many of these yellow people and became interested in their character and history. I have already described ' the appearance and character of my friend Ndombe, " king" of the Baschilange, who was one of the finest types of these light-colored men; but I have not yet recorded the facts connected with this phenomenon nor discussed the possible reasons for it.
--------------------------------------------
Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians
https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/24/3/710/1240790-------------------------------------------
Can East Asians Call Themselves 'Brown'?
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/11/16/563798938/the-gray-area-between-yellow-and-brown-skin
------------------------------------------
New evidence suggests volcanoes caused biggest mass extinction ever
April 15, 2019
Mercury found in ancient rock around the world supports theory that eruptions caused 'Great Dying' 252 million years ago.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/04/190415122249.htm
------------------------------------------
66-million-year-old deathbed linked to dinosaur-killing meteor
Fossil site preserves animals killed within minutes of meteor impact
Date:
March 29, 2019
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190329144223.htm
---------------------------------------
Why won’t this debate about an ancient cold snap die?
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/younger-dryas-comet-impact-cold-snap
-------------------------------------
Glacier Extent During the Younger Dryas and 8.2-ka Event on Baffin Island, Arctic Canada
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/337/6100/1330
-------------------------------------
No, a Comet Didn't Destroy Advanced Civilization 12800 Years Ago
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIuR_vKZks4
{Some debate if this video is entirely accurate, we would like to show the video as an alternative theory.
Could a sea eruption event have caused the oceans to lose warmth and
lose their currents to cause a mass extinction? Some claim that this is
just another theory of what could have caused a mass extinction}.
--------------------------------------
The Intriguing Problem Of The Younger Dryas—What Does It Mean And What Caused It?
https://wattsupwiththat.com/2012/06/19/the-intriguing-problem-of-the-younger-dryaswhat-does-it-mean-and-what-caused-it/
--------------------------------------
New evidence that cosmic impact caused Younger Dryas extinctions
https://phys.org/news/2013-08-evidence-cosmic-impact-younger-dryas.html
---------------------------------------
Mormon Church Finally Says Dark Skin is Not a Sign of God’s Curse
As of Friday, Dec. 6, the Mormon Church has officially renounced the doctrine that brown skin is a punishment from God.
In the “Book of Mormon,” (not the musical but the actual sacred text) dark skin is a sign of God’s curse, while white skin is a sign of his blessing. The book tells of a conflict between two lost tribes of Israel, the Lamanites and Nephites, who journeyed to the New World and made their home in Mesoamerica. The Lamanites sinned against God, and “because of their iniquity. …the Lord God did cause a skin of blackness to come upon them” (2 Nephi 5:21). Later, when Lamanites became Christians, “their curse was taken from them, and their skin became white like unto the Nephites” (3 Nephi 2:15).
These verses were thought to explain the dark skin of Native Americans. In 1960, Church apostle Spencer W. Kimball suggested at the general conference that Native Americans who converted to Mormonism were gradually becoming lighter skinned:
https://www.alternet.org/2013/12/mormon-church-dark-skin-sign-gods-curse-no-longer/
---------------------
Banned Mormon Cartoon - EXTENDED VERSION
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3BqLZ8UoZk
--------------------------------
{Mormons claim that white people we the original Adam and Eve of the Bible, and that all other
races were degenerates. This is why many say that the real chosen
people of the Bible were the white Aryans of Europe, especially around areas such as Germany. This is why we see why the Germans were so fascinated about King Arthur, the Holy Grail and the Bible.
Look at the Movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, for a good example of how fascinated the Germans were with being the chosen people of the Bible. This is also why a good portion of Germany practices Christianity.
Many of the mixed race degenerate Arabic Khazarians we see now claiming to be a Jew
were not the true chosen people of the Bible. This is why many of these people who claim to
be a Jew are called the fake Khazar Gyspy Jews that are not truly the chosen people. We see that many of this fake Gypsy Arabic beggars claiming to be a Jew have usurped the name of the Biblical people and have dragged the name of the word Jew through the mud. This is like saying you are an Atlantian with very little proof. Many of these blacks, Indians, Orientals and mixed race degenerates in the Middle East were actually the cursed races the Bible warns us about.
Look at how the white race has the best inventors and scientists through history.
Look at how much America progressed when it was a white nation, and look at how much it regressed once we let a bunch of third world degenerates into America.
This is why America now has a bunch of degenerates from Asia that have infected the rest of the world with a Third World Coronavirus.
------------------------------
The Mormons Were Correct (South Park)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pbr8IA1R5DE
---------------------------------
Blacks: Damned by the Bible
2006
https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2006/11/16/blacks-damned-by-the-bible/
----------------------------------
Charles Barkley and the Plague of 'Unintelligent' Blacks
October 28, 2014
A history of respectability politics, from the postbellum period to today
Charles Barkley recently explained why "we as black people are never going to be successful." His reasoning is painful:
"We as black people are never going to be successful, not because of you white people, but because of other black people. When you are black, you have to deal with so much crap in your life from other black people," Barkley said.
Barkley, a native of Leeds, [Alabama,] said African Americans are too concerned with street cred than true success and that's holding the community back.
"For some reason we are brainwashed to think, if you're not a thug or an idiot, you're not black enough. If you go to school, make good grades, speak intelligent, and don't break the law, you're not a good black person. It's a dirty, dark secret in the black community.
"There are a lot of black people who are unintelligent, who don't have success. It's best to knock a successful black person down because they're intelligent, they speak well, they do well in school, and they're successful. It's just typical BS that goes on when you're black, man."
It's worth noting that there isn't much difference between Barkley's claim that "there are a lot black people who are unintelligent" and the claims of a garden-variety racist. I assume that Barkley meant to say something more nuanced. That more charitable analysis, though, is far from a "dirty dark secret." The notion that black irresponsibility is at least part of the "race problem" is widely shared among black America's most prominent figures, beginning—but not ending—with the president of the United States.
https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/10/charles-barkley-and-the-plague-of-unintelligent-blacks/382022/
---------------------------------
Curse of Ham
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_Ham
Contents
1 Origins
1.1 Genesis
2 Ham's transgression
2.1 Seeing nakedness
2.2 Book of Jubilees
2.3 Medieval Judaism
3 Curse of Canaan
3.1 Dead Sea Scrolls
3.2 Jubilees
3.3 Classical Judaism
4 Misconception, racism, and slavery
4.1 Early Judaism and Islam
4.2 Medieval serfdom and "Pseudo-Berossus"
4.3 European/American slavery, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
4.4 Latter Day Saint movement
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Citations
6.2 Bibliography
7 External links
The
misnomer known as the Curse of Ham is more accurately known as the
curse upon Canaan, Ham's son, that was imposed by the biblical patriarch
Noah. The curse occurs in the Book of Genesis and concerns Noah's
drunkenness and the accompanying shameful act perpetrated by his son
Ham, the father of Canaan (Gen. 9:20–27). The controversies raised by
this story regarding the nature of Ham's transgression, and the question
of why Noah cursed Canaan when Ham had sinned, have been debated for
over 2,000 years.
The story's original purpose may have
been to justify the subjection of the Canaanite people to the
Israelites, but in later centuries, the narrative was interpreted by
some Christians, Muslims and Jews as an explanation for black skin, as
well as a justification for slavery. Nevertheless, most Christians,
Muslims and Jews now disagree with such interpretations, because in the
biblical text, Ham himself is not cursed, and race or skin color is
never mentioned.
For a period in its history the Latter Day Saint
movement used the curse of Ham to prevent the ordination of black men
to its priesthood.
------------------------------
The Younger Dryas Event and the Birth of the Gods | Ancient Architects
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTJYmIcJk6A
{Theory: Did radiation, a comet or Sun plasma event cause one race of people or humanoids to become
different races, or even different species through evolution or
devolution}.
-----------------
Evidences of Nuclear Explosion in Mohenjo Daro
http://earthmysterynews.com/2016/10/19/evidences-of-nuclear-explosion-in-mohenjo-daro/
--------------------
{Some question if different types of
radiation could cause different animals and species to evolve
differently. Some question how humans could adapt and change physical
traits in space, this would include trying to colonize other planets
with a less denser atmosphere and more intense Sun rays}.
---------------
Younger Dryas impact hypothesis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis
{Do you think that if we have had over a few different mass extinction events, that some types
of humanoid type creatures might have
faced extinction or mutated? Look at how we have all different types of animals,
yet we see how we have so many different colors of animals in each
species.
We have brown, black, white, orange and yellow cats, rabbits, dogs, rodents, birds and many
colors of fish, snake, frogs and humans}.
-----------------------
Holocene extinction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction
The
Holocene extinction, otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or
Anthropocene extinction, is the ongoing extinction event of species
during the present Holocene epoch, mainly as a result of human activity.
The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and
animals, including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and arthropods.
With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral
reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of
these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as no one is even
aware of the existence of the species before they go extinct, or no one
has yet discovered their extinction. The current rate of extinction of
species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural
background rates.
The Holocene extinction includes the
disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna, starting at the
end of the last Ice Age. Megafauna outside of the African continent,
which did not evolve alongside humans, proved highly sensitive to the
introduction of new predation, and many died out shortly after early
humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth (additionally, many
African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene). These
extinctions, occurring near the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary, are
sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event.
The
arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal
extinction. The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species
added to existing stress conditions. Although there is debate regarding
how much human predation affected their decline, certain population
declines have been directly correlated with human activity, such as the
extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii. Aside from humans, climate
change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions,
especially at the end of the Pleistocene.
--------------
Younger Dryas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Younger_Dryas
Brakenridge and the Vela Supernova hypothesis
Studies
by Senior Research Scientist Robert Brakenridge and others suggest
correlations between the Younger Dryas and a supernova that exploded
within the constellation of Vela approximately around the same time,
leaving behind what is now known as the Vela Supernova Remnant.
Brakenridge notes other researchers that have studied effects of
close-by supernovae on earth and uncovered suggestive correlating
evidence during the Younger Dryas, including depletion of the ozone
layer, increased UV exposure, nitrogen changes on the Earth’s surface
and troposphere, evidence of global cooling, changes in 14C and 10Be in
ice cores, a thin layer (approximately 30 centimeters) of “black mats”,
and many extinctions that may have been caused by the explosion of the
Vela Supernova.
While no cause is determined for
the extinction of many species, it is suggested that a combination of
some climatic change or being hunted by humans may have been a cause.
Most of the species that became extinct were cold blooded species and
Rancholabrean megafauna, including Mammathus Columbis, Canis Diris, and
Camelops. Survivors of the Younger Dryas included that of nocturnal
low-birth rate species residing in the mountainous or forest-like
terrains of the Americas, Eurasia, Australia, and in Madagascar. The
largest, slow breeding, diurnal species that lived in more open spaces
survived in the lower parts of Africa. There were also species that went
extinct that were not expected to by humans in the America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa.
Across faunal and Paleoindian
hunting sites, there has been evidence of carbon rich “black mats” that
were approximately 30 centimeters thin, suggesting an abrupt change that
occurred in a small time window and a rise in aquatic conditions.
Brakenridge also discusses pollen core research that suggests global
cooling conditions not to have just occurred in the Northern latitudes,
but also latitudes as far as 41°south. Tree ring evidence shows a rise
in 14C cosmogenic isotope. The increase may have also occurred around
the same time of the increase of another cosmogenic isotope, 10Be.
Brakenridge discusses possibilities behind these rises, including
climatic changes and carbon cycles or a more secular cause.
Another
hypothesis that Brakenridge discusses is that effects of a supernova
could have been a factor in the Younger Dryas. Effects of a supernova
have been suggested before, but without confirming evidence. Brakenridge
explains how with the following evidence that these effects could have
been caused by a celestial event, a supernova; observations of
Gamma-ray bursts and X-ray flashes have been compared to nebular records
to test this as well as supernovae flash models, comparable to the
records of in-galaxy supernovae, to study the effects of such an event
on Earth. These effects include depletion in the ozone later, increased
UV exposure, global cooling, and nitrogen changes in the Earth’s surface
and troposphere. As Brakenridge states, the only supernova possible at
that time was the Vela Supernova, or classified as the Vela Supernova
Remnant.
{We believe this theory to be true, and that humans faced different catastrophes as
well, it must have been difficult for this new race of darker African humans to adapt to their surroundings}.
----------------
Older Dryas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Older_Dryas
-----------------
Oldest Dryas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldest_Dryas
-----------------
BĂžlling oscillation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B8lling_oscillation
-------------------
Massive Impact Crater Beneath Greenland Could Explain Ice Age Climate Swing
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2018/11/14/greenland-crater-discovered-cause-younger-dryas/#.XFvEy7h7mcw
---------------------
The
Younger Dryas termination and North Atlantic Deep Water formation:
Insights from climate model simulations and Greenland ice cores
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/96PA02711
---------------------
The Younger Dryas cold event in NW Himalaya based on pollen record from the Chandra Tal area in Himachal Pradesh, India
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273382039_The_Younger_Dryas_cold_event_in_NW_Himalaya_based_on_pollen_record_from_the_Chandra_Tal_area_in_Himachal_Pradesh_India
---------------------
Arguments and evidence against a Younger Dryas impact event
https://arizona.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/arguments-and-evidence-against-a-younger-dryas-impact-event
----------------------
A glaciological model of the Younger Dryas event in Scandinavia
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/glaciological-model-of-the-younger-dryas-event-in-scandinavia/D2E7A055BEF8C3C5E2A8FC83BD864291
----------------------
Platinum may point to impact theory for Younger Dryas
https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/platinum-may-point-impact-theory-younger-dryas
-------------------------
Evidence for a massive biomass burning event at the Younger Dryas Boundary
http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Evidence_for_a_massive_biomass_burning_event_at_the_Younger_Dryas_Boundary_999.html
-----------------------
HUMAN RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE DURING THE YOUNGER DRYAS IN NORTHWEST EUROPE
https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/276744
-----------------------
The
Late Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic Occupation of the Black Desert
(Jordan): Investigating the Origins of Food Production in the Marginal
Zone
https://shubeika.ccrs.ku.dk/about/
--------------------------
A Blind Test of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0155470
----------------------
North Atlantic sea surface conditions during the Younger Dryas cold event
http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/111/1/167
--------------------
The Younger Dryas in Equatorial and Southern Africa and in the Southeast Atlantic Ocean
http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/publications/PU00011179.pdf
-------------------
Was The Younger Dryas Cooling Event Caused By A Cosmic Impact After All?
https://www.thegwpf.com/was-the-younger-dryas-cooling-event-caused-by-cosmic-impact-after-all/
--------------------
Minimal geological methane emissions during the Younger Dryas-Preboreal abrupt warming event.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28836593
--------------------
A
central Texas drying event identified at the Younger Dryas-early
Holocene transition using coupled speleothem ??¹³C-¹4C analysis
https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/64615
--------------------
The Younger Dryas Climate Event
http://people.oregonstate.edu/~carlsand/carlson_encyclopedia_Quat_2013_YD.pdf
--------------------
Evidence
for a bi-partition of the Younger Dryas Stadial in East Asia associated
with inversed climate characteristics compared to Europe
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep44983
---------------------
Could a Glacial Outburst Flood Repeat the “Younger Dryas” Cooling Event?
https://iafi.org/could-a-glacial-outburst-flood-repeat-the-younger-dryas-cooling-event/
--------------------
Ancient stone carvings confirm how comet struck Earth in 10,950 BC, sparking the rise of civilisations
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/04/21/ancient-stone-carvings-confirm-comet-struck-earth-10950bc-wiping/
---------------------
{Now we will discuss the theory on how certain species survived on Earth. It is highly debated
if humans evolved, or were in fact their own species put here by intelligent beings and then could also evolve over time. Many question if evolution is natural, or if aliens are giving assistance to creating certain animals that also have the option to evolve. One theory is that humans were put on this planet, and that many of the hominins are actually degenerates of ancient humans. An example would be such as we see in the movie Aquaman, it shows how a white race of people degenerated into a bunch of foul black subspecies of mutant type people.
This is also what many Jews and Mormons believe, is that there were an original race of people, such as a white chosen race. Then eventually other subspecies of animals such as Denisovans turned the skin of people brown, as a warning that this person was a Denisovan and not a full original human. The banned Mormon Cartoon clearly explains this, that there were cursed black races the Bible warns us about.
This is why Jews and Mormons believe that other races such as blacks are animals. However, many fake degenerative Arabic looking Jews use this ancient white religion against the original chosen white race. This is why many say that the true chosen people of the Bible were the Aryans of Germany.
We should not have Mormons try to change the original meaning of their faith, and apologize to the blacks.
King Philip II called the Filipino people inferior and we can see why. Notice how the Japanese people were actually much higher IQ than the darker brown skinned Orientals of the Philippines. This is why the religion of the Japanese is that the Japanese people were the superior race of Asia, simply because the Japanese had their own island, and were not able to breed with Filipino people who were more brown skinned and more Denisovan looking. The Filipino race is an inferior race compared to the higher IQ Asian countries. This goes to show what happens when you let a bunch of Denisovan degnerates on the same island breed for thousands of years and have a low IQ degenerative nation of brown skinned Denisovan hybrid subspecies. Japanese and Koreans also have lighter skinned Orientals than the Philippines, Indonesia and Cambodia. Japan and Korea have higher IQ than many of these countries such as the Philippines or Indonesia. This is why China, Korea or Japan would most likely be able to conquer the lower IQ countries in Asia. If anything we should have let the higher IQ Japanese Orientals eliminate the lower IQ Filipinos. It was a huge mistake letting many of these Filipino people overpopulate and destroy the islands of the Phillipines. Now we have many unwanted Filipinos here in America that we need to remove. We are tired of seeing many overpopulated Mexicans and Filipino people that resemble a Homo floresiensis}.
----------------------------
The Philippines was named after a pasty guy from Spain who never actually set foot in the Philippines.
February 18, 2019
King Philip II, ruler of the Spanish Empire for much of the 1500s, also regarded the archipelago’s inhabitants as inferior. He’d prefer to die 100 times, he said, than become the “ruler of heretics.”
https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-02-18/duterte-s-wild-proposal-changing-name-philippines
--------------------------
{The people of the Philippines are degenerates, we should have strict population control in the Philippines and places such as Indonesia. We need to stop these Denisovan and Homo erectus subspecies from ruining more Forests and Islands in South East Asia}.
---------------------------
Duterte’s wild proposal: Changing the name of the Philippines
February 18, 2019
https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-02-18/duterte-s-wild-proposal-changing-name-philippines
-------------------------
Bats evolved diverse skull shapes due to echolocation, diet
May 2, 2019
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190502075839.htm
--------------------------------
Signatures of echolocation and dietary ecology in the adaptive evolution of skull shape in bats
2019
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09951-y
------------------------------------------------------
Correlation of skull morphology and bite force in a bird-eating bat
19 March 2020
https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-020-00354-0
------------------------------------------------------
What a group of bizarre-looking bats can tell us about the evolution of mammals
14 August 2019
https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/192467/what-group-bizarre-looking-bats-tell-about/
------------------------------------------------------
The skulls of bats were shaped by different evolutionary forces
05-02-2019
https://www.earth.com/news/skulls-bats-evolutionary-forces/
-----------------------------------------------------
Carnivorous Bats Evolved Special Skulls
https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/carnivorous-bats-evolved-special-skulls/
-----------------------------------------------------
Desert long-eared bats - snarling winged gremlins that take scorpion stings to the face and just don't care (vesper bats part VII)
March 27, 2011.
https://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/03/28/desert-long-eared-bats
-----------------------------------------------------
Virus survey in populations of two subspecies of bent-winged bats (Miniopterus orianae bassanii and oceanensis) in south-eastern Australia reveals a high prevalence of diverse herpesviruses
May 24, 2018
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0197625
-----------------------------------------------------
Skull specializations allow bats to feast on their fellow vertebrates
May 11, 2016
https://www.washington.edu/news/2016/05/11/skull-specializations-allow-bats-to-feast-on-their-fellow-vertebrates/
--------------------------------
Evolution and development of the cartilaginous skull: From a lancelet towards a human face
July 2019
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1084952117301453
--------------------------------
20-Million-Year-Old Skull Reveals Anthropoid Primate Brains Evolved More Than Once
Aug 21, 2019
A fossil skull of Chilecebus carrascoensis, discovered in the Andes mountains of Chile, is the only known specimen of the species.
https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/research-posts/20-million-year-old-primate-skull
--------------------------------
This Tiny 20-Million-Year-Old Skull Could Improve Our Understanding of Brain Evolution
22 AUGUST 2019
https://www.sciencealert.com/this-tiny-ancient-skull-is-helping-us-understand-the-evolution-of-brains
--------------------------------
Human Evolution - Hominid Skulls
08/04/19
https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/science/human-evolution/human-evolution-skulls/
--------------------------------
Larger mammals have longer faces because of size-related constraints on skull form
2013
Facial length is one of the best known examples of heterochrony. Changes in the timingof facial growth have been invoked as a mechanism for the origin of our short human facefrom our long-faced extinct relatives. Such heterochronic changes arguably permit greatevolutionary flexibility, allowing the mammalian face to be remodelled simply by modifyingpostnatal growth. Here we present new data that show that this mechanism is significantlyconstrained by adult size. Small mammals are more brachycephalic (short faced) than largeones, despite the putative independence between adult size and facial length. This patternholds across four phenotypic lineages: antelopes, fruit bats, tree squirrels and mongooses. Despite the apparent flexibility of facial heterochrony, growth of the face is linked to absolutesize and introduces what seems to be a loose but clade-wide mammalian constraint onhead shape.
https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms3458.pdf?origin=ppub
--------------------------------
Skull fossil shows how whales grew to be largest animals on Earth
Tooth scratches suggest the move from toothed to filter-feeding was bridged by suction feeding. Jana Howden and Belinda Smith report.
https://cosmosmagazine.com/palaeontology/skull-fossil-shows-how-whales-became-biggest-animals-on-earth
--------------------------------------
Toothless, 33-Million-Year-Old Whale Could Be an Evolutionary ‘Missing Link’
11/29/18
https://gizmodo.com/toothless-33-million-year-old-whale-could-be-an-evolut-1830739126
----------------------------------------------------
Prehistoric Whale Jaw Bone Sheds Light on the Evolution of Baleen
November 29, 2018
Hidden in a museums’ collections for years, a fossil provides a link between past and present feeding mechanisms
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/prehistoric-whale-jaw-bone-sheds-light-evolution-baleen-180970917/
----------------------------------------------------
Extreme bradycardia and tachycardia in the world’s largest animal
https://www.pnas.org/content/116/50/25329
----------------------------------------------------
Super-Species in the calcareous plankton
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-06278-4_11
----------------------------------------------------
Whales evolved biosonar to chase squid into the deep
05 September 2007
https://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/09/05_WhaleSonar.shtml
--------------------------------------
Shedding new light on the evolution of the squid
February 28, 2017
https://phys.org/news/2017-02-evolution-squid.html
-----------------------------------
Brain evolution in Proboscidea (Mammalia, Afrotheria) across the Cenozoic
2019
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-45888-4
------------------------------------
Tongues, venom glands, and the changing face of Goronyosaurus
April 13, 2009.
https://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2009/04/13/tongues-venom-goronyosaurus
---------------------------------------
The remarkable convergence of skull shape in crocodilians and toothed whales
08 March 2017
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2016.2348
------------------------------------
Facing crocodiles head-on
Study examines how evolution modified the long-surviving reptiles’ snouts
February 20, 2019
https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/02/study-examines-how-developmental-changes-modified-the-reptiles-snouts/
The story that’s often told about crocodiles is that they’re among the most perfectly adapted creatures on the planet — living fossils that have remained virtually unchanged for millions of years.
The reality is far more interesting.
Throughout their evolutionary history, crocodiles, alligators, and their kin have repeatedly evolved similar skull shapes in response to dietary specializations: long snouts for eating fish; short snouts for harder prey; and moderate snouts for large prey. But how is such broadscale convergence generated?
Research led by Stephanie Pierce, associate professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, and Zachary Morris, Ph.D. ’20, aims to tackle this question by comparing embryonic development with later growth in all species of living crocodiles. Their work demonstrates that the diversity of skull shapes found today was realized by altering developmental patterns during evolution. The study is described in a Feb. 20 paper published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
The work was done in collaboration with Arkhat Abzhanov at Imperial College London and Kent Vliet at the University of Florida.
“This study is just a snapshot of crocodile evolution,” Pierce said. “But it shows they have been tinkering with their developmental strategy in order to adapt to their environment, so they can be as successful as possible.”
------------------------------------
Untangling the evolution of feeding strategies in ancient crocodiles
29 March 2019
http://www.bris.ac.uk/news/2019/march/crocodile-feeding-evolution.html
------------------------------------
Crocodiles and dolphins evolved similar skulls to catch the same prey
March 8, 2017
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/03/170308092458.htm
------------------------------------
How evolution modified the long-surviving reptiles’ snouts
Facing crocodiles head-on.
February 21, 2019
https://www.techexplorist.com/how-evolution-modified-long-surviving-reptiles-snouts/21064/
-------------------------------------
Developmental changes resulted in changes to crocodile snouts
February 20, 2019
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/02/190220103400.htm
------------------------------------
Why Crocodiles Look Like Whales
March 13, 2017
Shared dining habits have fueled a "remarkable" case of evolutionary convergence
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/laelaps/why-crocodiles-look-like-whales/
------------------------------------
Biggest Crocodile Found—Fossil Species Ate Humans Whole?
The 27-foot predator likely ambushed our ancestors
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/5/120508-biggest-crocodile-early-humans-science-animals/
------------------------------------
Climate change created today’s large crocodiles
September 23, 2019
https://theconversation.com/climate-change-created-todays-large-crocodiles-121933
------------------------------------
The multi-peak adaptive landscape of crocodylomorph body size evolution
07 August 2019
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-019-1466-4
-----------------------------------
Water pressure: Ancient aquatic crocs evolved, enlarged to avoid freezing
30-Mar-2020
Study pinpoints minimum survivable size of Jurassic crocodiles
https://eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-03/uon-wpa033020.php
-----------------------------------
Early Tetrapod Skull Looks like Crocodile
March 12, 2015
https://magazine.scienceconnected.org/2015/03/early-tetrapod-skull-looks-like-crocodile/
-------------------------------------
7-Million-Year-Old Fossils Show How the Giraffe Got Its Long Neck
November 25, 2015
https://www.livescience.com/52903-transitional-giraffe-fossils.html
---------------------------------------------------------
Ancient giraffe relative had thick legs, curly horns
January 13, 2016
https://phys.org/news/2016-01-ancient-giraffe-relative-thick-legs.html
---------------------------------------------------------
How the giraffe got its long neck: Nine million year old fossil sheds light on evolution of world's tallest animal
2 NOV 2017
The giraffid, or early giraffe, is thought to have existed as far back as the early Miocene era
https://www.mirror.co.uk/science/how-giraffe-long-neck-nine-11449188
---------------------------------------------------------
Four-Horned Giraffe Ancestor Unearthed in Spain
November 2, 2017
The fossil is an unusually complete individual of an ancient giraffid species
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/newly-discovered-specie-rewrites-giraffe-family-tree-180967059/
---------------------------------------------------------
Is this strange, three-horned extinct creature a giraffe cousin?
December 4, 2015
https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2015/1204/Is-this-strange-three-horned-extinct-creature-a-giraffe-cousin
---------------------------------------------------------
Ontogenetic similarities between giraffe and sauropod neck osteological mobility
January 13, 2020
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0227537
---------------------------------------------------------
Why sauropods had long necks; and why giraffes have short necks
2013
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3628838/
---------------------------------------------------------
Newest Pterosaur Was Likely as Tall as a Giraffe
September 10, 2019
Ancient flying reptile dubbed Cryodrakon boreas, the "cold dragon of the north winds," may shed light on the evolution of these dinosaur relatives.
https://www.insidescience.org/news/newest-pterosaur-was-likely-tall-giraffe
---------------------------------------------------------
Pterosaurs Were Monsters of the Mesozoic Skies
October 1, 2019
Fossils and mathematical modeling are helping to answer long-standing questions about these bizarre animals
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/pterosaurs-were-monsters-of-the-mesozoic-skies/
---------------------------------------------------------
Adaptive Radiation
Students analyze characteristics of six pterosaurs to determine the role of adaptive radiation in their evolution from a common ancestor.
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/adaptive-radiation/
---------------------------------------------------------
Evolutionary Transitions in the Fossil Record of Terrestrial Hoofed Mammals
16 April 2009
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12052-009-0136-1
------------------------------------
Skeletal development in the African elephant and ossification timing in placental mammals
2012
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3321712/
------------------------------------
Archaeologists suggest that hominins exploited Elephant skulls for more than just their brains
29 May 2016
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/human-evolution/news/2016/may/archaeologists-suggest-hominins-exploited-elephant-skulls-more-just-their-brains
------------------------------------
Why Early Humans Were Breaking Elephant Bones a Million Years Ago
May 29, 2019
Why were archaic hominins making copies of stone tools out of pachyderm bones? Could it have been respect, hundreds of thousands of years before Homo sapiens even existed?
https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium.MAGAZINE-why-early-humans-were-breaking-elephant-bones-a-million-years-ago-1.7303057
------------------------------------
How poaching is changing the faces of African elephants
Mar 16, 2017
https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/3/16/14939840/elephant-poaching-tuskless-tusk-evolution
------------------------------------
Brain Changes during Phyletic Dwarfing in Elephants and Hippos
2018
https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/497268
-------------------------------------
An early, rabbit-sized elephant relative from Morocco
2009
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/phenomena/2009/07/07/an-early-rabbit-sized-elephant-relative-from-morocco/
------------------------------------
Paleocene emergence of elephant relatives and the rapid radiation of African ungulates
June 30, 2009
https://www.pnas.org/content/106/26/10717
------------------------------------
Bodies Keep Shrinking on This Island, and Scientists Aren't Sure Why
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/02/science/pygmies-flores-evolution.html
-------------------------------------
Hybrid origins of the straight-tusked elephants
26 Feb 2018
http://johnhawks.net/weblog/reviews/genomics/elephant/elephant-palaeoloxodon-hybrids-2018.html
-------------------------------------
A chronicle of giant straight-tusked elephants
January 21, 2020
https://phys.org/news/2020-01-chronicle-giant-straight-tusked-elephants.html
------------------------------------
You Won’t Forget: The Difference between African and Asian Elephants
https://thomsonsafaris.com/blog/difference-african-asian-elephant/
--------------------------------
How Do Teeth Become Tusks? (The Evolution)
https://www.readytosmile.com/2018/09/18/how-do-teeth-become-tusks-the-evolution/
--------------------------------
How the rhino got his woolly
Aug 24th 2013
Ice-age giants like the woolly rhino may originally have been Tibetan
https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2013/08/24/how-the-rhino-got-his-woolly
------------------------------------
Woolly rhino fossil discovery in Tibet provides important clues to evolution of Ice Age giants
September 2, 2011
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110901142100.htm
------------------------------------
The story of rhinos and how they conquered the world
18 May 2015
Over the last 50 million years, rhinos have braved ice ages, prehistoric hyenas and giant crocodiles – and they were once the largest animals on land
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150518-the-epic-history-of-rhinos
------------------------------------
Ancient rhinoceros tooth DNA from Georgia’s Dmanisi site in ‘game-changing’ evolutionary study
12 Sep 2019
https://agenda.ge/en/news/2019/2437
------------------------------------
What an elephant’s tooth teaches us about evolution
2016
To prove that evolutionary change isn’t always down to the genes, just open an elephant’s mouth …
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jan/31/elephant-teeth-teach-about-evolution
------------------------------------
Here's a line-up of prehistoric beasts from the rhino family tree
2015
https://www.earthtouchnews.com/natural-world/evolution/heres-a-line-up-of-prehistoric-beasts-from-the-rhino-family-tree/
------------------------------------
1.7-Million-Year-Old Rhino Tooth Provides Oldest DNA Data Ever Studied
September 12, 2019
Researchers read the proteins preserved in the tooth enamel of an ancient rhino, a trick that may allow them to sequence fossils millions of years old
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/million-year-old-rhino-tooth-provides-oldest-dna-data-180973117/
------------------------------------
Triceratops: Facts About the Three-Horned Dinosaur
March 18, 2016
https://www.livescience.com/24011-triceratops-facts.html
---------------------------------
[Evolution and functional morphology of primate facial skulls].
1993
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8128757
Abstract
Both ontogenetically and phylogenetically the facial skull of primates consists of two components: the endocranial nasal capsule, and the exocranial membrane bones. The cartilaginous nasal capsule of the fetal period constitutes the framework for the nasal cavity, and it also functions as an expansive basis for the developing facial skull. In adult animals, its ossified parts form the fragile ethmoid bone. The structure of the nasal capsule is determined on the one hand by the spatial requirements of the orbits and of the nasal cavity (with respiratory and olfactory components), and on the other hand by the biomechanical properties of the chewing apparatus. The interaction of these heterogeneous factors results in complex, species-specific compromises. Primates are characterized by a gradual reduction of their olfactory system throughout evolution and by binocular vision. Their chewing apparatus shows constructional adaptations to a varying herbivorous diet. Viewed within a phylogenetic-systematic framework, primate evolution may be taken as a natural experiment that demonstrates the influence of various factors on a complex structural system such as the nasal and facial skeleton.
--------------------------------
Are Diet Preferences Associated to Skulls Shape Diversification in Xenodontine Snakes?
Abstract
Snakes are a highly successful group of vertebrates, within great diversity in habitat, diet, and morphology. The unique adaptations for the snake skull for ingesting large prey in more primitive macrostomatan snakes have been well documented. However, subsequent diversification in snake cranial shape in relation to dietary specializations has rarely been studied (e.g. piscivory in natricine snakes). Here we examine a large clade of snakes with a broad spectrum of diet preferences to test if diet preferences are correlated to shape variation in snake skulls. Specifically, we studied the Xenodontinae snakes, a speciose clade of South American snakes, which show a broad range of diets including invertebrates, amphibians, snakes, lizards, and small mammals. We characterized the skull morphology of 19 species of xenodontine snakes using geometric morphometric techniques, and used phylogenetic comparative methods to test the association between diet and skull morphology. Using phylogenetic partial least squares analysis (PPLS) we show that skull morphology is highly associated with diet preferences in xenodontine snakes.
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0148375
--------------------------------
Ancestor of all animals identified in Australian fossils
March 23, 2020
A wormlike creature that lived more than 555 million years ago is the earliest bilaterian
Geologists have discovered the first ancestor on the family tree that contains most animals today, including humans. The wormlike creature, Ikaria wariootia, is the earliest bilaterian, or organism with a front and back, two symmetrical sides, and openings at either end connected by a gut. It was found in Ediacaran Period deposits in Australia and was 2-7 millimeters long, with the largest the size of a grain of rice.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/03/200323152108.htm
--------------------------------
500-million-year-old worm 'superhighway' discovered in Canada
https://phys.org/news/2019-02-million-year-old-worm-superhighway-canada.html
Prehistoric
worms populated the sea bed 500 million years ago—evidence that life
was active in an environment thought uninhabitable until now, research
by the University of Saskatchewan (USask) shows.
The
sea bed in the deep ocean during the Cambrian period was thought to have
been inhospitable to animal life because it lacked enough oxygen to
sustain it.
But research published in the scientific
journal Geology reveals the existence of fossilized worm tunnels dating
back to the Cambrian period 270 million years before the evolution of
dinosaurs.
--------------
You Share 70% of Your Genes with This Slimy Marine Worm
https://www.livescience.com/52843-acorn-worm-genome-sequencing.html
-------------
Worms and Humans Share the Same Life-Prolonging Gene
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2015/12/03/life-prolonging-gene-found-in-worms-exists-in-humans/#.XHyDFbh7k2w
---------------
Evolution of the Major Lineages of Tapeworms (Platyhelminthes: Cestoidea) Inferred from 18S Ribosomal DNA and Elongation Factor-1α
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3285679?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
-----------------
Stem cells of worms, humans more similar than expected
The same regulatory mechanisms are active in the stem cells of flatworms and humans
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160809121428.htm
---------
Photos: 'Naked' Ancient Worm Hunted with Spiny Arms
https://www.livescience.com/57683-photos-naked-worm-cambrian-period.html
---------
Scientists Finally Solve Mystery of Tiny, Ancient Worm’s 'Mismatched' Head and Body
2019
https://www.livescience.com/64857-ancient-worm-hidden-jaws.html
------------
480-Million-Year-Old Mystery Creature Finally Identified from Its Preserved Guts
https://www.livescience.com/64832-ancient-starfish-relative-mystery-solved.html
-------------
The terrifying bobbit worm has a huge ancient cousin
------------
How Giant Tube Worms Survive at Hydrothermal Vents | I Contain Multitudes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8W_ywzhkR90
---------------
BLOODWORMS - Will They BITE?!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7aM5gU8mFY
-------------
Worms With A Copper Smile
Mineral Composite in Glycera Jaws Imparts Strength, Abrasion Resistance
https://pubs.acs.org/cen/critter/worms1.html
Lichtenegger
and her colleagues used a combination of X-ray diffraction, electron
microscopy, and other techniques to determine the chemical composition
and mechanical properties of the worm's jaws. The carnivorous worm uses
the hard, sharp-tipped structures to bite and inject venom into its
prey.
The tip region of the jaws contains layers of
polycrystalline atacamite fibrils dispersed in a protein matrix, the
researchers find. The fibrils, which align with the jaw's outer contour,
are about 80 nm in diameter and 1210 mm long. They are concentrated
toward the center of the tip, while the base region is devoid of
fibrils. The hardness and stiffness of the jaw increases from the base
to the tip and from the surface to the interior, which correlates with
the increasing degree of mineralization
Cross-sectional
maps of copper and chloride concentration confirm the elemental
distribution in the jaw and show that the Cu-Cl ratio is higher than
that found in atacamite, suggesting that free copper ions are present.
Copper is known to cross-link polymers and protein scaffolds, the
researchers point out, and the excess copper in the worm's jaw could be
playing that role.
The jaw's impressive structural
stability and resistance to abrasion approaches that of human tooth
enamel, the team notes--even though atacamite makes up only 4% of the
worm's jaw, while hydroxyapatite, Ca5(PO4)3OH, makes up 96% of tooth
enamel. This toughness is needed to protect the jaw from wear and tear
as the worm burrows through gritty marine sediment where it may chomp
indiscriminately on bits of gravel.
-------------
Worm's Use of Copper Could Point to Novel Material Designs
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/worms-use-of-copper-could/
--------------
Cool Evolution Trick: Platinum Turns Baby Snails Into Slugs
2010
https://www.wired.com/2010/10/snails-slugs-shell-evolution/
--------------------------------------------
This Iron-Shelled Snail Is Totally Metal … And Now It’s Endangered
July 24, 2019
https://www.livescience.com/66017-metal-snail-endangered.html
(The scaly-foot snail is also known as the sea pangolin for its "armor" made of overlapping scales).
------------------------------
Snail Teeth Found to Be Strongest Natural Material
2/18/15
You
may have heard that spider silk is the strongest material in the
natural world. That used to be true, but now scientists have identified
something even stronger: the teeth of limpets, a type of aquatic snail.
(Next step could be limpet-tooth body armor).
https://www.newsweek.com/snail-teeth-found-be-strongest-natural-material-307707
-------------------------------
Uncovering the Secrets of Abalone Body Armor
https://jacobsschool.ucsd.edu/news/news_releases/release.sfe?id=327
San
Diego, CA, January 14, 2005 -- Engineering researchers at the
University of California, San Diego are using the shell of a
seaweed-eating snail as a guide in the development of a new generation
of bullet-stopping armor. The colorful oval shell of the red abalone is
highly prized as a source of nacre, or mother-of-pearl, jewelry, but the
UCSD researchers are most impressed by the shell’s ability to absorb
heavy blows without breaking.
In a paper published in the Jan. 15
issue of Materials Science and Engineering A, Marc A. Meyers, a
professor in UCSD’s Jacobs School of Engineering, and engineering
graduate student Albert Lin explain in detail for the first time the
steps taken by the abalone to produce a helmet-like home made with 95
percent calcium carbonate “tiles” and 5 percent protein adhesive.
Teachers who write on blackboards know that calcium
carbonate, or
chalk, is weak and brittle, but Meyers and Lin have demonstrated that a
highly ordered brick-like tiled structure created by the mollusk is the
toughest arrangement of tiles theoretically possible.
The
abalone shell investigation is one of a growing number of
science-mimicking-nature, or biomimetic, projects at UCSD. For example,
Meyers also is analyzing the strong, but extremely lightweight bill of
the Toco Toucan, a Central and South American bird that squashes fruit
and berries with its banana-shaped bill. “We are actually interested in
basic research on new materials,” said Meyers. “We have turned to nature
because millions of years of evolution and natural selection have given
rise in many animals to some very sturdy materials with surprising
mechanical properties.”
Other biomimetic projects at UCSD include
development of a new artificial limb technology that relies on bars and
wires, new drug synthesis techniques invented to duplicate those of
microorganisms, and “epidemiology-based” techniques designed to detect
and defend against viruses, worms and other plagues afflicting the
Internet.
(The mother-of-pearl growth surface of
abalone shell is colored due to the way light refracts as it strikes
tiny terraces of calcium carbonate).
(UCSD engineering researchers showed that the terraced,
Christmas tree-like surface of abalone shell has evenly spaced
nucleation sites from which stacks of hexagonal “tiles” of calcium
carbonate begin to grow. The top and bottom surfaces of each
layer of tiles are separated by a protein adhesive, but the
adhesive does not bind the edges of tiles to adjoining tiles).
---------------------------------------------
Mitochondrial evolution in snails gives hints on the adaptations from sea to land and beyond
25 Aug 2016
https://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bmcseriesblog/2016/08/25/mitochondrial-evolution-snails-gives-hints-adaptations-sea-land-beyond/
--------------------------------------------
EVOLUTION OF ADAPTATION THROUGH ALLOMETRIC SHIFTS IN A MARINE SNAIL
2006
https://www.eeob.iastate.edu/faculty/adams/files/page/files/2006-hollanderetal-evolution.pdf
-------------------------------
A speciation gene for left–right reversal in snails results in anti-predator adaptation
2010
https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms1133
------------------------------
How the snail's shell got its coil: Single gene that causes a rightward swirl in the gastropod's hard exterior is found by scientists - and creatures missing the DNA have a 'sinister' lefty spiral
14 May 2019
Experts identified a gene that causes rightward chirality in freshwater snails
Scientists say it could explain why our hearts are on the left and livers right
'Lefty' snails are rarely found in nature and are shunned as mating partners
Jeremy the 'lefty' snail's failed hunt for love went viral on social media in 2017
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7026899/Single-gene-causes-rightward-swirl-snails-shells-identified.html
------------------------------
Tweaking one gene with CRISPR switched the way a snail shell spirals
The first gene-edited snails confirm which gene is responsible for how a shell swirls
May 14, 2019
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/tweaking-one-gene-crispr-switched-way-snail-shell-spirals
--------------------------------
A delicacy now, snails in the human diet may have meant survival 150,000 years ago
26 October, 2015
https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/delicacy-now-snails-human-diet-may-have-meant-survival-150000-years-ago-020589
--------------------------------------
Evolution and development of the cartilaginous skull: From a lancelet towards a human face
July 2019
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1084952117301453
----------------------------------
SNAPSHOT: Evolution of a Snail Color Debate
February 27, 2019
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/snapshot-evolution-of-a-snail-color-debate
------------------------------
Artemia habitats: Ion concentrations tolerated by one superspecies
1988
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00026278
Abstract
The geographic distribution, history, and ionic composition of habitats of Artemia franciscana are reviewed with emphasis on habitats with extreme values for ionic concentrations or ionic ratios: a) high-chloride waters (sea water salterns and Zuni and Great Salt Lakes); b) high-sulfate lakes in Saskatchewan (Chaplin and Little Manitou) and on the Okanogan plateau of Washington (Penley Lake complex); and c) high-carbonate habitats in Nevada (Fallon), in California (Mono Lake) and in the Nebraska sandhills (Jesse and Antioch).
First-instar nauplii from populations representative of each of these three habitat clusters were tested for tolerance of potassium (0–5 g K l-1), magnesium (0–1.3 g Mg l-1), and calcium (0\2–0.6 g Ca l-1). Viabilities were recorded until survivors reached adulthood in pairs of simple defined synthetic culture media which differed in only one parameter. Eight populations showed four levels of tolerance of high potassium. Of four populations tested, all had high viability and fertility in media lacking potassium (above the level in the yeast diet).
Artemia from sea water salterns or from Zuni, Chaplin, or Great Salt Lakes could not tolerate low levels of calcium (<20 mg l-1). This accounts for their inability to tolerate hypersaline high-carbonate waters. Mono and Fallon nauplii had high viability and fertility in media with low levels of calcium (0–10 mg l-1) but lacking magnesium. They could not survive for seven days, however, in low-calcium (< 10 mg l-1) media that contained moderate amounts of magnesium (1.3 g l-1), indicating that magnesium interferes with utilization of low levels of calcium.
For each of the three cations, the range of concentrations encountered by each population in the habitat is narrower than the range affording high viability in laboratory media. As expected, the midpoints of the two ranges are sometimes similar. In many cases, however, the narrower range of ionic concentrations reported for lake water is at the end of the range affording high viability in the laboratory.
--------------------------------
Giant Viruses Invent Genes Shared by No Life on Earth
Giant viruses may invent genes and proteins found nowhere else on Earth, new research suggests.
As
their name implies, giant viruses are big — as big as bacteria, and
more than twice the size of typical viruses, scientists have previously
reported. Giant viruses have more complex genomes than some simple
microbial organisms, and many of their genes code for proteins found
only in giant viruses, according to past studies.
https://www.livescience.com/62804-giant-viruses-evolve-unique-genes.html
--------------
Fitness of Leishmania donovani Parasites Resistant to Drug Combinations
https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003704
-------------
Genetically
Modified Live Attenuated Leishmania donovani Parasites Induce Innate
Immunity through Classical Activation of Macrophages That Direct the Th1
Response in Mice
https://iai.asm.org/content/83/10/3800
--------------------
Leishmania donovani
Leishmania
donovani is a species of intracellular parasites belonging to the genus
Leishmania, a group of haemoflagellate kinetoplastids that cause the
disease leishmaniasis. It is a human blood parasite responsible for
visceral leishmaniasis or kala-azar, the most severe form of
leishmaniasis. It infects the mononuclear phagocyte system including
spleen, liver and bone marrow. Infection is transmitted by species of
sandfly belonging to the genus Phlebotomus in Old World and Lutzomyia in
New World. Therefore, the parasite is prevalent throughout tropical and
temperate regions including Africa (mostly in Sudan), China, India,
Nepal, southern Europe, Russia and South America. It is responsible for
thousands of deaths every year and has spread to 88 countries, with 350
million people at constant risk of infection and 0.5 million new cases
in a year.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmania_donovani
----------------------
Genetically modified live attenuated parasites as vaccines forleishmaniasis
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5110/bf19e66a80a3f02cb306e281b747ccf99b04.pdf
--------------
Largest parasitic worm genetic study hatches novel treatment possibilities
Study helps understand how parasitic worms cause disease and uncovers potential new de-worming medicines
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/11/181105122530.htm
---------------
Genetically modified Plasmodium parasites as a protective experimental malaria vaccine.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15580261
Abstract
Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that is transmitted by inoculation of the Plasmodium parasite sporozoite stage...
----------------
Success Shown in Humans with Genetically Engineered Malaria Parasite Vaccine
https://www.cidresearch.org/articles/success-shown-in-humans-with-genetically-engineered-malaria-parasite-vaccine
------------------
Human anaerobic intestinal “rope” parasites
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1301/1301.0953.pdf
-------------------
Tropical Diseases: Can CRISPR help in the fight against parasitic worms?
https://elifesciences.org/articles/44382
------------------
How a nasty, brain-eating parasite could help us fight cancer
The
team of investigators behind the new study set out to harness the
immune system’s reaction to the presence of the parasite Toxoplasma
gondii (T. gondii), which can be found in cat faeces, as a tool to cure
ovarian cancer..
In the field of parasitology no
single parasite is as popular as T. gondii. This single-cell parasite,
which affects one third of the world’s human population, is best known
for its ability to invade and damage the brain and alter the behaviour
of affected individuals..
http://theconversation.com/how-a-nasty-brain-eating-parasite-could-help-us-fight-cancer-64267
-----------------
Genetic Manipulation of the Toxoplasma gondii Genome by Fosmid Recombineering
https://mbio.asm.org/content/5/6/e02021-14
--------------------
Genetic modifications of cytokine genes and Toxoplasma gondii infections in pregnant women
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0882401017304588
---------------------
QTL Mapping and CRISPR/Cas9 Editing to Identify a Drug Resistance Gene in Toxoplasma gondii
https://www.jove.com/video/55185/qtl-mapping-crisprcas9-editing-to-identify-drug-resistance-gene
---------------
Genetic Protection For Plants Against Parasitic Worm Attack
Read more at: https://ascienceenthusiast.com/genetic-plants-parasitic-worm/
------------------
Genetically modified bacteria could deter crop parasites
https://microbiologysociety.org/news/society-news/genetically-modified-bacteria-could-deter-crop-parasites.html
---------------
What leeches and ligers can teach you about evolution
https://boingboing.net/2013/04/24/leeches-are-a-hypothesis-why.html
-----------------
Bacterial symbiont and salivary peptide evolution in the context of leech phylogeny.
Abstract
The
evolutionary history of leeches is employed as a general framework for
understanding more than merely the systematics of this charismatic group
of annelid worms, and serves as a basis for understanding blood-feeding
related correlates ranging from the specifics of gut-associated
bacterial symbionts to salivary anticoagulant peptides. A variety of
medicinal leech families were examined for intraluminal crop bacterial
symbionts. Species of Aeromonas and Bacteroidetes were characterized
with DNA gyrase B and 16S rDNA. Bacteroidetes isolates were found to be
much more phylogenetically diverse and suggested stronger evidence of
phylogenetic correlation than the gammaproteobacteria. Patterns that
look like co-speciation with limited taxon sampling do not in the full
context of phylogeny. Bioactive compounds that are expressed as gene
products, like those in leech salivary glands, have 'passed the test' of
evolutionary selection. We produced and bioinformatically mined
salivary gland EST libraries across medicinal leech lineages to
experimentally and statistically evaluate whether evolutionary selection
on peptides can identify structure-function activities of known
therapeutically relevant bioactive compounds like antithrombin, hirudin
and antistasin. The combined information content of a well corroborated
leech phylogeny and broad taxonomic coverage of expressed proteins leads
to a rich understanding of evolution and function in leech history.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21729354
--------------------
Marine Leech Anticoagulant Diversity and Evolution.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29505345
Leeches
(Annelida: Hirudinea) possess powerful salivary anticoagulants and,
accordingly, are frequently employed in modern, authoritative medicine.
Members of the almost exclusively marine family Piscicolidae account for
20% of leech species diversity, and they feed on host groups (e.g.,
sharks) not encountered by their freshwater and terrestrial
counterparts. Moreover, some species of Ozobranchidae feed on endangered
marine turtles and have been implicated as potential vectors for the
tumor-associated turtle herpesvirus. In spite of their ecological
importance and unique host associations, there is a distinct paucity of
data regarding the salivary transcriptomes of either of these families.
Using next-generation sequencing, we profiled transcribed, putative
anticoagulants and other salivary bioactive compounds that have
previously been linked to blood feeding from 7 piscicolid species (3
elasmobranch feeders; 4 non-cartilaginous fish feeders) and 1
ozobranchid species (2 samples). In total, 149 putative anticoagulants
and bioactive loci were discovered in varying constellations throughout
the different samples. The putative anticoagulants showed a broad
spectrum of described antagonistic pathways, such as inhibition of
factor Xa and platelet aggregation, which likely have similar bioactive
roles in marine fish and turtles. A transcript with homology to ohanin,
originally isolated from king cobras, was found in Cystobranchus vividus
but is otherwise unknown from leeches. Estimation of selection
pressures for the putative anticoagulants recovered evidence for both
positive and purifying selection along several isolated branches in the
gene trees, and positive selection was also estimated for a few select
codons in a variety of marine species. Similarly, phylogenetic analyses
of the amino acid sequences for several anticoagulants indicated
divergent evolution.
---------------------
The Evolution of Parental Care in Freshwater Leeches
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1431761304700336
Summary
The
life-history strategies of a selection of the most common European
freshwater leeches (Euhirudinea) are described. On the basis of this
information and results from the literature, the probable phylogenetic
development of parental care in the Euhirudinea is reconstructed. The
jawless worm leeches (Erpobdellidae) secrete a protective cocoon, cement
it to the substrate and sometimes ventilate it before they leave the
egg capsules. This behaviour represents the most ancient state in leech
evolution. Members of the jawed Hirudinidae deposit
desiccation-resistant cocoons on land. All known Glossiphoniidae
(leeches equipped with a proboscis) have evolved the habit of brooding
the eggs and young. These unique parental care patterns within one
family of extant freshwater leeches can be arranged schematically in a
series of increasing complexity which may reflect the evolution of
brooding behaviour. Glossiphoniid leeches of the genus Helobdella, which
have a world-wide distribution, display the most highly developed
parental care system: they not only protect but also feed the young they
carry. This results in the young being much larger when they leave the
parent and, presumably, in higher subsequent survival. Isolated cocoons
of all aquatic leeches are rapidly destroyed by predators, primarily
water snails. In erpobdellids (but not glossiphoniids, which protect the
cocoons) a large portion of the cocoons are lost due to predatory
attacks. We conclude that the major selective pressure driving the
evolution of parental care in leeches may have been predation on eggs
and juvenile stages.
----------------------
On the origin of leeches by evolution of development
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dgd.12573
--------------------
Monster leech swallows giant worm - Wonders of the Monsoon: Episode 4 - BBC Two
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=72&v=0fGGz6d3vC4
----------------------
Massive Australian earthworm can grow up to 9 feet long [7 pictures]
https://twentytwowords.com/massive-australian-earthworm-can-grow-up-to-9-feet-long-7-pictures/
-------------------
Nature Blows My Mind! World's largest earthworm can grow to 9 ft. long
https://www.treehugger.com/natural-sciences/nature-blows-mind-worlds-largest-gippsland-worm.html
----------------
Giant Gippsland earthworm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_Gippsland_earthworm
---------------
Divers Discover Huge 26-foot Deep-sea Worm
https://weather.com/news/trending/video/divers-discover-huge-26-foot-deep-sea-worm
--------------------
Worm evolves to eat corn that was genetically engineered to kill it
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/worm-evolves-to-eat-corn-that-was-genetically-engineered-to-kill-it-9199667.html
-----------------
How Genetically Modified Corn Is Creating Super Worms
https://thinkprogress.org/how-genetically-modified-corn-is-creating-super-worms-4d5fdbebb848/
------------------
Genetic Protection For Plants Against Parasitic Worm Attack
Read more at: https://ascienceenthusiast.com/genetic-plants-parasitic-worm/
------------------
Genetically modified bacteria could deter crop parasites
https://microbiologysociety.org/news/society-news/genetically-modified-bacteria-could-deter-crop-parasites.html
------------
Caenorhabditis elegans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans
Caenorhabditis
elegans is a free-living, transparent nematode, about 1 mm in length,
that lives in temperate soil environments. It is the type species of its
genus. The name is a blend of the Greek caeno- (recent), rhabditis
(rod-like) and Latin elegans (elegant). In 1900, Maupas initially named
it Rhabditides elegans, Osche placed it in the subgenus Caenorhabditis
in 1952, and in 1955, Dougherty raised Caenorhabditis to the status of
genus.
C. elegans is an unsegmented pseudocoelomate and
lacks respiratory or circulatory systems. Most of these nematodes are
hermaphrodites and a few are males. Males have specialised tails for
mating that include spicules.
C. elegans is notable in
animal sleep studies as the most primitive organism to display
sleep-like states. In C. elegans, a lethargus phase occurs shortly
before each moult.
--------------
Rapid Experimental Evolution of Pesticide Resistance in C. elegans Entails No Costs and Affects the Mating System
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2580027/
----------------
Giant Viruses Invent Genes Shared by No Life on Earth
https://www.livescience.com/62804-giant-viruses-evolve-unique-genes.html
--------------------------------
Human evolution
https://www.britannica.com/science/human-evolution
--------------------------------
The evolution of whales
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evograms_03
The first thing to notice on this evogram is that hippos are the closest living relatives of whales, but they are not the ancestors of whales. In fact, none of the individual animals on the evogram is the direct ancestor of any other, as far as we know. That's why each of them gets its own branch on the family tree.
(Skeletons of two early whales).
(As whales evolved increasingly aquatic lifestyles, they also evolved nostrils located further and further back on their skulls).
--------------------------------
Fossil skull sheds new light on transition from water to land
16 Mar 2015
The first 3D reconstruction of the skull of a 360 million-year-old near-ancestor of land vertebrates has been created by scientists.
https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/fossil-skull-sheds-new-light-on-transition-from-water-to-land
--------------------------------
Mammal Forerunner that Reproduced Like a Reptile Sheds Light on Brain Evolution
A newly described fossil of an extinct mammal relative — and her 38 babies — is among the best evidence that a key development in the evolution of mammals was trading brood power for brain power.
https://news.utexas.edu/2018/08/29/mammal-forerunner-sheds-light-on-brain-evolution/
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
What birds can teach us about evolution
2018
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2018/october/what-birds-can-teach-us-about-evolution.html
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hualongdong Skull Is Latest Challenge To Dominant Human Evolution Model
2019
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/hualongdong-skull-is-latest-challenge-to-dominant-human-evolution-model
Researchers created a virtual reconstruction of the mostly complete Hualongdong skull (yellow) by mirror-imaging the missing pieces (gray). Stone tools found at the site appear in lower corners of the image. (Credit: Wu Xiujie) A largely complete, roughly 300,000-year-old skull from southeastern China appears to be the latest evidence challenging the dominant model of human evolution. The Hualongdong skull's unique combination of features make the fossil a tantalizing clue to East Asia's diverse hominin history. Researchers excavating a collapsed cave site unearthed the skull, formally known as Hualongdong 6 (HLD 6), along with additional partial fossils of archaic humans and animals, plus assorted stone tools, over the last decade or so. Using the ages of surrounding mineral deposits and other material in the cave, the team determined the skull and other remains were about 300,000 years old. Unlike many East Asian archaic human fossils, which are often fragmentary, the Hualongdong skull is nearly complete, and in decent shape, allowing the team to draw some firm conclusions about its anatomy. And that's where things get really interesting. Traits That Are Not Straightforward HLD 6 exhibits a suite of traits consistent with other archaic human remains from East Asia, such as a low and wide cranial vault (sometimes imprecisely called the skullcap), a low and wide nasal aperture (the pear-shaped opening in the skull for a schnoz) and reduced or absent third molars. However, the Hualongdong skull also has a few features that seem transitional toward anatomically modern humans (AMHs). Unlike the chinless, projecting faces of archaic humans and their ancestors, HLD 6 had a relatively flat face and somewhat of a chin. The evolution of the chin has long been debated in paleoanthropology circles, but everyone agrees only Homo sapiens have prominent ones. HLD 6 is not the first East Asian skull to sport an unusual combination of traits. For example, the partial Xuchang skulls from Central China, at least 100,000 years old, have a different collection of mosaic traits, blending archaic and modern human anatomy with that of Neanderthals. The Hualongdong fossils are also by no means the oldest hominin remains found in East Asia; multiple specimens of Homo erectus and related lineages have been unearthed going back more than 1.6 million years. A 2018 study of more than 100 tools from Shangchen suggested that archaic hominins were in China 2.1 million years ago, though no hominin fossils of that age have turned up (yet). So, while it's not a shocking find, HLD 6 is still significant. To understand why, we have to wade into one of the more contentious debates in human evolution. From Many, One? Or From One, Many? For decades, particularly in the West, the Recent African Origin model of human evolution (RAO) has dominated. According to this hypothesis, AMHs evolved in Africa and then, in the last 50,000-80,000 or so years, spread out across Eurasia, displacing or absorbing any isolated populations of archaic humans still hanging on. Over the last decade, new fossil finds outside Africa have pushed back the dispersal date, though not all RAO proponents accept evidence of an earlier departure. Staunch advocates of the long-standing theory typically consider finds such as Israel's Misliya-1 partial jaw, at least 170,000 years old, as evidence only that a couple AMHs may have wandered out of Africa super early but didn't get very far. Meanwhile, an alternate model of human evolution, Multiregionalism or Regional Continuity, has gained traction, particularly in East Asia. According to multiregionalists, when H. erectus left Africa almost 2 million years ago, these early explorers didn't die out. They fanned out across Eurasia and continued to evolve, eventually becoming regional populations of H. sapiensbefore other populations of H. sapiens left Africa. The differences between the models may seem insignificant to outsiders — for example, both models acknowledge interbreeding occurred in the last 100,000 years between the various populations of archaic and modern humans — but these competing paths of human evolution disagree over some of the core issues of our deep past, including how we define a species and what makes us human. In the last two years, some researchers have proposed a third model that tries to reconcile the dueling models and the expanding fossil record, acknowledging the complexity of our origin story. So let's get back to HLD 6. The skull has some traits that are consistent with other archaic members of the genus Homo that have been found in East Asia. It also has features that hint at traits unique to AMHs, which have not been found outside of Africa earlier than about 180,000 years ago (and that's the Misliya-1 fossil, found in Israel, essentially on the edge of the African continent). At about 300,000 years old, HLD 6 may be evidence of regional continuity, a transitional human that represents the evolution of archaic East Asian H. erectus populations into East Asian AMHs. Or, quite frankly, HLD 6 may simply be an anomaly, an archaic hominin with some quirky variations. Until researchers find more fossils, the Hualongdong skull will probably be interpreted according to whatever bias you bring to the table. The HLD 6 study was published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).
--------------------------------
Analysis of Early Hominins
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/hominid/australo_2.htm
--------------------------------
Skull of Homo erectus throws story of human evolution into disarray
2013
A haul of fossils found in Georgia suggests that half a dozen species of early human ancestor were actually all Homo erectus
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/17/skull-homo-erectus-human-evolution
--------------------------------
Our Skulls Are Out-Evolving Us
Sep 19, 2019
A motley crew of scientists argue that our ever-shrinking skulls are wreaking havoc on our well-being
Over the last 250 years, our skulls have morphed in dangerous and troubling ways.
https://onezero.medium.com/our-skulls-are-out-evolving-us-and-that-could-mean-a-public-health-crisis-f950faed696d
--------------------------------
Snake Skulls Clarify How History's Creepiest Animals Lost Their Legs
2018
Snakes evolved from lizards, and then what?
https://www.inverse.com/article/40596-snake-evolution-lizard-university-of-helsinki
--------------------------------
How Dinosaurs Shrank and Became Birds
June 2, 2015
Modern birds appeared to emerge in a snap of evolutionary time. But new research illuminates the long series of evolutionary changes that made the transformation possible.
https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-birds-evolved-from-dinosaurs-20150602/
--------------------------------
TAXONOMIC ASPECTS OF AVIAN HYBRIDIZATION
https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v086n01/p0084-p0105.pdf
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Islands Helped Penguins Evolve. Then Hungry Humans Showed Up.
Feb. 8, 2019
The discovery of two extinct penguin subspecies in New Zealand is a cautionary tale of the threats faced by the waddling birds in the wild.
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/08/science/penguins-islands-extinctions.html
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ice sheets promote speciation in boreal birds
http://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC1691815&blobtype=pdf
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Consequences of divergence and introgression for speciation in Andeancloud forest birds
2016
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/137772/evo13251.pdf?sequence=1
-------------------------------
Birds' unique skulls linked to young dinosaur brains
2017
https://phys.org/news/2017-09-scientists-track-brain-skull-transition-dinosaurs.html
--------------------------------
Human evolution
https://www.maropeng.co.za/content/page/human-evolution
--------------------------------
Tracing the Evolution of the Human Brain Through Casts of the Inner Skull
October 25, 2015
https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/70306/tracing-evolution-human-brain-through-casts-inner-skull
--------------------------------
Wow, Dogs Really Don’t Like Black People
If Fido turns feisty around your Black friends, you may have a racist dog on your hands
ome people would argue I’m doing something to provoke these innocent Fidos. It’s entirely possible some sort of voodoo slave magic emanates from my core, and that’s what’s making all of the doggies I run into hate me so much. Or maybe I’m actually a huge bitch and I use Black telepathic powers to communicate with dogs that I hate them. Some may assume I act afraid around dogs. And that’s what encourages them to attack me.
But I think it’s because a lot of White people’s dogs just don’t like Black people.
Some professionals argue that dogs’ evolutionary history impels them to protect the pack when danger approaches. In 2020, the “pack” is their owner. Dogs also pick up on their owner’s biased fear responses, regardless of the level of subtlety. An increased heart rate. A rise in body temperature. A barely discernible increase in the tug on their collar. Change in tone of voice while saying “hi” to the Black person approaching both owner and dog. All of this alerts the dog that their owner’s in danger. So they react by growling and barking at the Black person threatening the safety of the vicinity.
Other people attribute the phenomenon of racists dogs to the fact that White people’s dogs simply aren’t around Black people often enough to trust them. These poor dogs are victims of circumstance. They’re forced to live in ethnic deserts where only White people dot the landscape.
When a Black person finally does jaunt into their vision, they don’t see human beings. They see dark-skinned specters shucking and jiving… err, I mean, walking toward them down the sidewalk. It’s akin to seeing Bigfoot, or a gray alien approaching you for the first time. It’s only natural for dogs to jump and bark as a reaction.
But Black people have an evolutionary history as well. Attack dogs and police canines have long been used to terrorize and intimidate Black Americans during interactions with law enforcement. It’s only natural for us to be a little cautious around man’s best friend, who has seldom been friendly to us.
Dogs also pick up on their owner’s biased fear responses, regardless of the level of subtlety.
Look. I get it. White people don’t intend for their dogs to hate Black people. But can we all acknowledge this is a Black experience that needs to be addressed broadly across American culture? As a 30-something-year-old Black woman living in Los Angeles, it degrades my sense of safety to the point that I needed to write a partially tongue-in-cheek article about it on Medium.
https://zora.medium.com/wow-dogs-really-dont-like-black-people-f7618445b43a
------------------------------------------------------
New evidence shows that domestication of dogs has changed their skull shapes
18/10/2017
https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/news/domesticated-dog-skull-shape
-------------------------------------------------------
Patterns of integration in the canine skull: An inside view into the relationship of the skull modules of domestic dogs and wolves
August 2017
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319190514_Patterns_of_integration_in_the_canine_skull_An_inside_view_into_the_relationship_of_the_skull_modules_of_domestic_dogs_and_wolves
-------------------------------------------------------
Wolf-to-dog transition had little to do with humans, ancient skull suggests
December 18, 2011
The “extraordinary preservation” of a 33,000-year-old skull — found in a cave in southern Siberia — has helped show that dog domestication “was, in most cases, entirely natural” and not really a “human accomplishment,” says B.C. evolutionary biologist Susan Crockford
https://nationalpost.com/news/wolf-to-dog-transition-had-little-to-do-with-humans-ancient-skull-suggests
--------------------------------------------------------
Prehistoric fossils suggest modern dogs evolved from a single population of wolves
Jul 18, 2017
https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/18/15992572/dog-genetics-archaeology-fossils-evolution-domestication-wolves
-------------------------------------------------------
40,000-year-old severed wolf's head discovered in Siberia
June 12, 2019
https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/11/europe/russia-wolf-head-scli-intl/index.html
--------------------------------------------------------
The self-domestication hypothesis: evolution of bonobo psychologyis due to selection against aggression
2011
https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/sites/evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/files/site-images/hare-et-al-2012-self-domestication.original.pdf
-------------------------------------------------------
Human meddling has manipulated the shapes of different dog breeds’ brains
September 2, 2019
Distinct shapes of pooches’ brain regions aren’t solely due to the animals’ size or head shape
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/dogs-breed-brain-shape-humans
-------------------------------------------------------
Large-Scale Diversification of Skull Shape in Domestic Dogs: Disparity and Modularity
2009
https://morphometrics.uk/PDF_files/AmNat2010.pdf
-------------------------------------------------------
Toward understanding dog evolutionary and domestication history
March 2011
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631069110003008
------------------------------------------------------
Out of Asia: An Allopatric Model for the Evolution of the Domestic Dog
2013
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2013/841734/
------------------------------------------------------
Domestic dogs may have evolved separately in Europe and Asia
2 June 2016
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2091836-domestic-dogs-may-have-evolved-separately-in-europe-and-asia/
------------------------------------------------------
Novel contributions in canine craniometry: Anatomic and radiographic measurements in newborn puppies
May 8, 2018
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0196959
--------------------------------
K-9 skull study may help children with craniofacial deformities
Feb 11, 2013
http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/343261
----------------------------------
Ancient Dog Skull Shows Early Pet Domestication
2011
33,000-year-old fossil suggests dogs arose in multiple places, study says.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/8/110819-dogs-wolves-russia-domestication-animals-science-evolution/
--------------------------------
Morphogenesis of Canine Chiari Malformation and Secondary Syringomyelia: Disorders of Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation
27 July 2018
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2018.00171/full
--------------------------------
Females Live Longer Than Males In Majority Of Wild Mammals
March 27, 2020
https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/females-live-longer-than-males-in-majority-of-wild-mammals/
--------------------------------
On the lack of a universal pattern associated with mammalian domestication: differences in skull growth trajectories across phylogeny
25 October 2017
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.170876
--------------------------------
Ancient Coelacanth Fish Study Reveals Insights On Skull Evolution
2019
https://www.techtimes.com/articles/241858/20190419/ancient-coelacanth-fish-study-reveals-insights-on-skull-evolution.htm
--------------------------------
Newly found species fills evolutionary gap between fish and land animals
Paleontologists have discovered fossils of a species that provides the missing evolutionary link between fish and the first animals that walked out of water onto land about 375 million years ago. The newly found species, Tiktaalik roseae, has a skull, a neck, ribs and parts of the limbs that are similar to four-legged animals known as tetrapods, as well as fish-like features such as a primitive jaw, fins and scales.
http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/06/060405.tiktaalik.shtml
---------------------------------
A tiny skull fossil suggests primate brain areas evolved separately
2019
Digital reconstruction hints that the organ’s development over time was complicated
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/skull-fossil-suggests-primate-brain-areas-evolved-separately
--------------------------------
Dental and Skull Anatomy of Carnivores, Herbivores, and Omnivores
https://www.mainstreetsmiles.com/dental-and-skull-anatomy-of-carnivores-herbivores-and-omnivores/
--------------------------------
Why we have a spine, when over 90% of animals don't
2016
Although the backbone is one of the most important innovations in the history of life, its origins have long been shrouded in mystery
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160812-why-we-have-a-spine-when-over-90-of-animals-dont
--------------------------------
Coelacanth Reveals Secrets of Vertebrate Skull Evolution
Apr 23, 2019
http://www.sci-news.com/biology/coelacanth-brain-skull-07118.html
---------------------------------
Ancient Skull Shows What the Last Common Ancestor of Apes and Humans Looked Like
8/11/2017
The 13-million-year-old infant skull was unearthed in Kenya in 2014 and will help researchers understand how climate, ecology, geography, and other factors were key to evolution.
https://www.seeker.com/earth/animals/ancient-skull-shows-what-the-last-common-ancestor-of-apes-and-humans-looked-like
--------------------------------
Chew on this: we finally know how our jaws evolved
October 20, 2016
https://theconversation.com/chew-on-this-we-finally-know-how-our-jaws-evolved-64559
--------------------------------
Transitional Fossils of Hominid Skulls
2012
http://www.theistic-evolution.com/transitional.html
--------------------------------
The evolution of earthworms
http://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bmcseriesblog/2017/06/01/the-evolution-of-earthworms/
-----------------------------------------------
Worm Genomes Reveal The Path Of Evolution
Scientists in Japan have gained new insights into the genetic similarities between distantly related animal groups by analyzing the genomes of two species of worms.
https://www.asianscientist.com/2017/12/in-the-lab/worm-genome-vertebrate-evolution/
-----------------------------------------------
Ancient worms may have saved Earth
2014
https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2014/08/ancient-worms-may-have-saved-earth
-----------------------------------------------
Strange Worms Are Taking Their Place on Your Family Tree
2016
The Cambrian explosion of animal life now seems more like a whimper.
http://nautil.us/issue/34/adaptation/strange-worms-are-taking-their-place-on-your-family-tree
-----------------------------------------------
Evolution of development in nematodes related to C. elegans
Abstract
The knowledge about C. elegans provides a paradigm for comparative studies. Nematodes are very attractive in evolutionary developmental biology given the species richness of the phylum and the easiness with which several of these species can be cultured under laboratory conditions. Embryonic, gonad, vulva and male tail development were studied and compared in nematodes of five different families, providing a detailed picture of evolutionary changes in development. In particular, vulva development has been studied in great detail and substantial differences in the cellular, genetic and molecular mechanisms have been observed between C. elegans and other nematodes. For example, vulva induction relies on the single anchor cell in C. elegans, whereas a variety of different cellular mechanisms are used in related species. In recent years, a few species have been developed as satellite systems for detailed genetic and molecular studies, such as Oscheius tipulae and Pristionchus pacificus.
http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_evoldevnematode/evoldevnematode.html
-----------------------------------------------
This Worm That Lost Its Legs Is The Earliest Known Example of Evolutionary Reversion
28 FEBRUARY 2020
https://www.sciencealert.com/this-worm-that-lost-its-legs-is-the-earliest-known-example-of-evolutionary-reversion
----------------------------------------------
Tiny worm burrows may reveal when first complex animals evolved
11 September 2017
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2146935-tiny-worm-burrows-may-reveal-when-first-complex-animals-evolved/
-----------------------------------------------
An Amphisbaenian Skull from the European Miocene and the Evolution of Mediterranean Worm Lizards
2014
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0098082
-----------------------------------------------
Conserved evolution of skull shape in Caribbean headfirst burrowing worm lizards (Squamata: Amphisbaenia)
2018
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329017535_Conserved_evolution_of_skull_shape_in_Caribbean_headfirst_burrowing_worm_lizards_Squamata_Amphisbaenia
-----------------------------------------------
Fish finger fossils show the beginnings of hands
March 18, 2020
https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/18/world/fish-finger-fossil-scn/index.html
-----------------------------------------------
Synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy of melanosomes in vertebrates and cephalopods: implications for the affinity of Tullimonstrum
2019
Was Tully a spineless monster?
The chemical compositions of fossilized eyes could bring us closer to solving the mystery of a bizarre extinct beast.
Approximately 300-million-year-old fossils of Tullimonstrum, or ‘Tully Monster’, reveal a bizarre slug-like aquatic creature with a long, clawed appendage where its mouth should be. Whether Tully was a vertebrate, like mammals and reptiles, or an invertebrate, like crustaceans and octopuses, is still debated.
A team led by researchers from University College Cork used a particle accelerator to compare the chemical properties of eye melanosomes — cell structures containing the ultraviolet-screening pigment melanin — in modern and fossil vertebrates and invertebrates, from sea bass to squid.
They found that across both existing and fossilised species, vertebrate eye melanosomes contained a higher ratio of zinc to copper than those of invertebrates. As for Tully, this ratio was closer to that of invertebrates.
Studying melanosome chemistry in many more invertebrates could help narrow down what type of animal Tully actually was.
https://www.natureindex.com/article/10.1098/rspb.2019.1649
----------------------------------------------
Details of Evolutionary Transition from Fish to Land Animals Revealed
https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=112416
---------------------------------------------
Ancient shark fossil reveals new insights into jaw evolution
April 16, 2014
Summary:
The skull of a newly discovered 325-million-year-old shark-like species suggests that early cartilaginous and bony fishes have more to tell us about the early evolution of jawed vertebrates -- including humans -- than do modern sharks, as was previously thought. The new study shows that living sharks are actually quite advanced in evolutionary terms, despite having retained their basic 'sharkiness' over millions of years.
"Sharks are traditionally thought to be one of the most primitive surviving jawed vertebrates. And most textbooks in schools today say that the internal jaw structures of modern sharks should look very similar to those in primitive shark-like fishes," said Alan Pradel, a postdoctoral researcher at the Museum and the lead author of the study. "But we've found that's not the case. The modern shark condition is very specialized, very derived, and not primitive."
The new study is based on an extremely well-preserved shark fossil collected by Ohio University professors Royal Mapes and Gene Mapes in Arkansas, where an ocean basin once was home to a diverse marine ecosystem. The fossilized skull of the new species, named Ozarcus mapesae, along with similar specimens from the same location, were part of a recent donation of 540,000 fossils from Ohio University to the Museum.
The heads of all fishes -- sharks included -- are segmented into the jaws and a series of arches that support the jaw and the gills. These arches are thought to have given rise to jaws early in the tree of life.
Because shark skeletons are made of cartilage, not bone, their fossils are very fragile and are usually found in flattened fragments, making it impossible to study the shape of these internal structures. But the Ozarcus mapesae specimen was preserved in a nearly three-dimensional state, giving researchers a rare glimpse at the organization of the arches in a prehistoric animal.
"This beautiful fossil offers one of the first complete looks at all of the gill arches and associated structures in an early shark. There are other shark fossils like this in existence, but this is the oldest one in which you can see everything," said John Maisey, a curator in the Museum's Division of Paleontology and one of the authors on the study. "There's enough depth in this fossil to allow us to scan it and digitally dissect out the cartilage skeleton."
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140416133336.htm
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Indonesia’s First Record of ‘Living Fossil’: The Goblin Shark
Aug 2, 2019
https://medium.com/wcs-marine-conservation-program/indonesias-first-record-of-living-fossil-the-goblin-shark-38a9a666142a
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The goblin shark's slingshot jaws are the fastest of any shark species
August 20 2016
https://www.earthtouchnews.com/natural-world/how-it-works/the-goblin-sharks-slingshot-jaws-are-the-fastest-of-any-shark-species/
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Morphology and evolution of the jaw suspension in lamniform sharks
July 2005
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7859850_Morphology_and_evolution_of_the_jaw_suspension_in_lamniform_sharks
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Prehistoric ghost shark Helicoprion's spiral-toothed jaw explained
2013
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/running-ponies/prehistoric-ghost-shark-helicoprions-spiral-toothed-jaw-explained/
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Jaw-inspiring: Ancient fish was pivotal in evolution of face, researchers find
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-fish/jaw-inspiring-ancient-fish-was-pivotal-in-evolution-of-face-researchers-find-idUSBREA1B22Q20140213
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Independently evolved upper jaw protrusion mechanisms show convergent hydrodynamic function in teleost fishes
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/215/9/1456
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Buzzsaw-toothed leviathans cruised the ancient seas
http://www.eartharchives.org/articles/buzzsaw-toothed-leviathans-cruised-the-ancient-seas/
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Shark like Helicoprion Ruled Its Environs with a Row of Vertical Teeth
October 1, 2017
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sharklike-helicoprion-ruled-its-environs-with-a-row-of-vertical-teeth/
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Hammerhead shark study shows cascade of evolution affected size, head shape
May 18, 2010
https://phys.org/news/2010-05-hammerhead-shark-cascade-evolution-affected.html
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Why the hammerhead shark got its hammer
27 November 2009
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18210-why-the-hammerhead-shark-got-its-hammer/
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This X-ray of a hammerhead shark is both awesome and terrifying
21 September 2018
https://www.shortlist.com/news/hammer-head-shark-x-ray
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Why hammerhead sharks have such funny heads
August 12, 2012
Of all the beautifully odd creatures, the hammerhead shark boasts perhaps the strangest of all cephalic physiques.
https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/why-hammerhead-sharks-have-such-funny-heads
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Evolution of the hammerhead cephalofoil: Shape change, space utilization, and feeding biomechanics in hammerhead sharks (Sphyrnidae)
2010
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Evolution-of-the-hammerhead-cephalofoil%3A-Shape-and-Mara/6285de12ec8c7bdf97b37867c585ed870c1678f7
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Sphyrna mokarran, Great Hammerhead
http://digimorph.org/specimens/Sphyrna_mokarran/
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New ancient shark species gives insight into origin of great white
November 4, 2012
https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/new-ancient-shark-species-gives-insight-into-origin-of-great-white/
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Preserved shark fossil adds evidence to great white’s origins
August 1, 2009
https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/preserved-shark-fossil-adds-evidence-to-great-whites-origins/
---------------------------------------------------------
Great white sharks older than previously thought, study says
https://www.foxnews.com/science/mediterranean-great-white-sharks-older-than-thought
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Teeth help scientists trace evolution of great white shark family to Middle Jurassic
July 5, 2019
https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2019/07/05/Teeth-help-scientists-trace-evolution-of-great-white-shark-family-to-Middle-Jurassic/2611562342470/
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A 300 Million Year Old Shark Skull Was Discovered Inside Kentucky Cave
https://www.discovery.com/nature/300-million-year-old-shark-skull-found-buried-inside-mammoth-cav
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Development and evolution of tooth renewal in neoselachian sharks as a model for transformation in chondrichthyan dentitions
05 March 2018
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joa.12796
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The genome of the great white shark shows how it uniquely evolved to be a survivor
February 20, 2019
https://qz.com/1554190/great-white-sharks-massive-genomes-may-help-humans-fight-cancer/
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How the Great White Shark's genes may help to fight cancer
21 Feb 2019
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/02/scientists-just-mapped-the-great-white-sharks-genome-revealing-clues-that-may-help-us-heal-wounds-and-fight-cancer/
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Problems in Fish-to-Tetrapod Transition: Genetic Expeditions Into Old Specimens
16 July 2018
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcell.2018.00070/full
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8 - Origin, Development and Evolution of the Fish Skull
December 2018
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/evolution-and-development-of-fishes/origin-development-and-evolution-of-the-fish-skull/3592B378983E67F5A3F011F8C5EEBFE1
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Evolutionary history of anglerfishes (Teleostei: Lophiiformes): A mitogenomic perspective
February 2010
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41547721_Evolutionary_history_of_anglerfishes_Teleostei_Lophiiformes_A_mitogenomic_perspective
----------------------------------------------------------
Bait and Switch: A Trick Used by Both Anglerfish and Evolutionists
DECEMBER 29, 2011
https://www.icr.org/article/bait-switch-trick-used-by-both-anglerfish
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Anglerfish and their headlamp bacteria have a crazy relationship
July 19th, 2018
https://www.futurity.org/anglerfish-bacteria-symbiosis-1816222/
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How (and why) fins turn into limbs: insights from anglerfish
March 2019
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/how-and-why-fins-turn-into-limbs-insights-from-anglerfish/7D43B7251465600BCC40B23E51D6FBF9
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Evolutionary history of anglerfishes (Teleostei: Lophiiformes): a mitogenomic perspective
23 February 2010
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-10-58
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Glowing bacteria on deep-sea fish shed light on evolution, 'third type' of symbiosis
July 18, 2018
https://phys.org/news/2018-07-bacteria-deep-sea-fish-evolution-symbiosis.html
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Researchers have traced the evolution of glowing shrimp
February 10, 2015
(Composite showing secretory luminescence as a defensive mechanism).
https://phys.org/news/2015-02-evolution-shrimp.html
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Mantis shrimp shoulder their evolutionary baggage and bluff
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/mantisshrimp_01
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Insect-like brain region found in crustacean group
October 2017
‘Mushroom bodies’ associated with learning were thought to be exclusive to insects.
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-017-04098-6
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New Fossil Fills Gap in Evolution of Comma Shrimps
Dec 5, 2019
http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/eobodotria-muisca-07876.html
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'Perplexing' New Crab Species Sheds Light on Crustacean Evolution
2019
https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/perplexing-new-crab-species-sheds-light-on-crustacean-evolution
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Analyzing fish skull development and evolutionary success
March 30, 2018
https://news.wsu.edu/2018/03/30/analyzing-fish-skull-development-evolutionary-success/
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Fish fossil suggests our skeleton evolved face first
25 September 2013
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24268-fish-fossil-suggests-our-skeleton-evolved-face-first/
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Form and function of damselfish skulls: rapid and repeated evolution into a limited number of trophic niches
2009
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-9-24
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Scientists finally figure out evolution of bizarre ‘bristle-jaw’ worm
2019
Chaetognaths, or arrow worms, have a distinct jaw structure composed of a dense protein matrix and a fibrous substance called chitin
https://www.siliconrepublic.com/innovation/bizarre-bristle-jaw-worm-evolution
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For bone-eating worms, smaller is better
2015
https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/accumulating-glitches/for_boneeating_worms_smaller_is/
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Tyrannobdella rex N. Gen. N. Sp. and the Evolutionary Origins of Mucosal Leech Infestations
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0010057
Abstract
Background
Leeches have gained a fearsome reputation by feeding externally on blood, often from human hosts. Orificial hirudiniasis is a condition in which a leech enters a body orifice, most often the nasopharyngeal region, but there are many cases of leeches infesting the eyes, urethra, vagina, or rectum. Several leech species particularly in Africa and Asia are well-known for their propensity to afflict humans. Because there has not previously been any data suggesting a close relationship for such geographically disparate species, this unnerving tendency to be invasive has been regarded only as a loathsome oddity and not a unifying character for a group of related organisms.
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New fossil trove documents recovery of life on Earth after dinosaur-killing asteroid impact
October 24, 2019
https://www.washington.edu/news/2019/10/24/fossil-mammals-denver-basin/
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Scientists made a chicken more like a dinosaur to see how beaks evolved
2015
https://www.theverge.com/2015/5/13/8600421/dino-chicken-studying-bird-beak-evolution
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Psittacosaurus Dinosaur Skull Study Reveals Three Species Are Actually One
Aug 14, 2013
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/psittacosaurus-dinosaur-skull-study-species_n_3745347
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Tyrannosaurus rex (T. rex) evolved from tiny dinosaurs, fossils show
https://www.dw.com/en/tyrannosaurus-rex-t-rex-evolved-from-tiny-dinosaurs-fossils-show/a-48625940
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In Analysis of Skulls, Following the Path From T. Rex to Falcon
2012
https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/05/science/skull-analysis-charts-the-changes-from-dinosaurs-to-birds.html
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Take a T-Rex and a chicken and you’ll see how dinosaurs shrank, survived and evolved into birds
July 31, 2014
https://theconversation.com/take-a-t-rex-and-a-chicken-and-youll-see-how-dinosaurs-shrank-survived-and-evolved-into-birds-29996
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11 times birds looked like the dinosaurs they secretly are
11 Feb 2016
https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/science/nature/article/2016/02/11/11-times-birds-looked-dinosaurs-they-secretly-are
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Haast’s Eagle Was Big & Strong Enough to Prey on Humans
December 21, 2012
https://scitechdaily.com/haasts-eagle-was-big-strong-enough-to-prey-on-humans/
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A Fascinating Example for Convergent Evolution: Endangered Vultures
2014
https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access/a-fascinating-example-for-convergent-evolution-endangered-vultures-2332-2543-1-132.pdf
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Evolutionary history of New and Old WOrld vulture inferred from nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome b Gene
https://www.jstor.org/stable/56332?seq=1
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Amazing Species: The Great (and Gross) Turkey Vulture
Recognizing an underappreciated evolutionary marvel
March 15, 2017
https://www.cmnh.org/the-great-(and-gross)-turkey-vulture
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A Morphometric Study on the Skull of the Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo)
2018
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/499933
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The phylogenetic significance of the morphology of the syrinx, hyoid and larynx, of the southern cassowary, Casuarius casuarius (Aves, Palaeognathae)
2019
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-019-1544-7
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Meet a Living Dinosaur: The Giant Cassowary
https://everwideningcircles.com/2016/12/28/meet-living-dinosaur-giant-cassowary/
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Well-preserved fossils show ostrich relatives lived in North America 50 million years ago
July 5, 2016
https://vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2016/07/science-ostrichrelativenew.html
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This Newly-Discovered Dinosaur Looks Just Like a Modern Day Cassowary
7/27/17
https://gizmodo.com/this-newly-discovered-dinosaur-looks-just-like-a-modern-1797274767
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Bony Pits in the Ostrich (Struthio camelus) and Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) Bill Tip
14 March 2017
https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ar.23594
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Mechanical Analysis of Feeding Behavior in the Extinct “Terror Bird” Andalgalornis steulleti (Gruiformes: Phorusrhacidae)
August 18, 2010
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011856
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Fowl-mouthed study finds that diet shaped duck, goose beaks
May 30, 2017
An analysis of the relationship between diet and beak shape among waterfowl not only shows that feeding is likely the major influence that fits the bill, but also suggests that early birds of the order were likely more duck-like than goose-like.
https://www.brown.edu/news/2017-05-30/beaks
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Correlated evolution of neck length and leg length in birds
08 May 2019
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.181588
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The skull roof tracks the brain during the evolution and development of reptiles including birds
2017
http://www.danieljfield.com/Home/Publications_files/Fabbri%20et%20al%202017.%20The%20skull%20roof%20tracks%20the%20brain%20during%20the%20evolution%20and%20development%20of%20reptiles%20including%20birds.pdf
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Chickens Have Been Modified to Lay Eggs Containing Anti-Cancer Medicine
29 JANUARY 2019
https://www.sciencealert.com/genetically-modified-chickens-are-laying-eggs-containing-anti-cancer-drugs
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"Chicken bioreactors" lay medicinal eggs
January 28, 2019
https://newatlas.com/genetically-modified-hens-proteins-eggs/58228/
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US government approves transgenic chicken
09 December 2015
The eggs of the genetically engineered animal contain an enzyme that can treat a rare disease.
https://www.nature.com/news/us-government-approves-transgenic-chicken-1.18985
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Scientists Created a Dino-Skulled Chicken to Explore Evolution
May 14, 2015
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/scientists-created-a-dino-skulled-chicken-to-explore-evolution/
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Chicken Grows Face of a Dinosaur
13 May 2015
A chicken embryo with a dinosaur-like snout instead of a beak has been developed by scientists
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150512-bird-grows-face-of-dinosaur
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Tracking Transition: From dinosaurs to birds, brain-skull evolution
January 28, 2018
http://www.yalescientific.org/2018/01/tracking-transition-from-dinosaurs-to-birds-brain-skull-evolution/
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What Drives Bird Vision? Bill Control and Predator Detection Overshadow Flight
07 November 2017
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2017.00619/full
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One Of The Last Surviving Raptors Has Been Uncovered In New Mexico
Dineobellator notohesperus
https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/one-of-the-last-surviving-raptors-has-been-uncovered-in-new-mexico/
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Fossil of new feathered raptor called 'dancing dragon' found in China bridges evolution gap between dinosaurs and birds
17 January 2020
A new fossil discovered in China sheds light on dinosaurs evolution into birds
The 'Dancing dragon' fossil is named for its active looking pose
It was a crow-sized relative of the velociraptor with unique plumage
Scientists say its feathers may help illuminate dinosaurs 'transition into birds
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7901027/Dancing-dragon-shows-feathers-grew-differently-dinosaurs-birds.html
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A Triassic averostran-line theropod from Switzerland and the early evolution of dinosaurs
2019
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6669044/
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Paleontologists discover complete Saurornitholestes langstoni specimen
October 17, 2019
Discovery provides valuable insight into evolution of theropod dinosaurs around the world
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191017125237.htm
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Halszkaraptor escuilliei and the evolution of the paravian bauplan
11 November 2019
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-52867-2
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Discovery of Raptor-Like Dinosaur Adds a New Wrinkle to the Origin of Birds
July 10, 2019
A small, 150 million-year-old dinosaur unearthed in Wyoming ran on the ground, but it may have been closely related to some of the first fliers
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/discovery-raptor-dinosaur-adds-new-wrinkle-origin-birds-180972588/
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Vicious Velociraptor : tales of a turkey-sized dinosaur
8 August 2018
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/velociraptor-facts.html
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Evolution of the vomer and its implications for cranial kinesis in Paraves
September 24, 2019
https://www.pnas.org/content/116/39/19571
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Meet Lori, A Tiny Dinosaur That May Help Explain How Birds Evolved Flight
10 July 2019
The chicken-size carnivore from the late Jurassic is already ruffling feathers among palaeontologists.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/science/meet-lori-a-tiny-dinosaur-that-may-help-explain-how-birds-evolved-flight.aspx
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Built To Fly
With its four wings and a long, bony tail, Microraptor was unlike any bird alive today. This is because it was a dinosaur—one that evolved long after the first known bird, Archaeopteryx, split off from the dinosaur family tree. Earlier dinosaurs, common ancestors to both Microraptor and Archaeopteryx, had already formed many of the physiological traits needed for getting airborne, such as feathers and light, hollow bones. With these structures in place, both animals were able to separately take further evolutionary steps by forming wings on their arms (and in Microraptor, legs) and getting off the ground. Below, learn more about the evolution of gliding and flight, and of birds, by comparing the skeletons of Archaeopteryx, Microraptor, and Deinonychus, one of Microraptor's closest non-flying relatives.—Rima Chaddha
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/microraptor/skel-nf.html
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How to Make a Bird Skull: Major Transitions in the Evolution of the Avian Cranium, Paedomorphosis, and the Beak as a Surrogate Hand
01 July 2016
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/56/3/389/2363364
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Dinosaur Discovery Sheds New Light On How Raptors Evolved
October 12, 2019
https://paleontologyworld.com/dinosaurs-%E2%80%93-species-encycolpedia-paleontologists-curiosities/dinosaur-discovery-sheds-new-light-how
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Cranial functional morphology of Archaeopteryx and the biomechanical triggers of avian evolution
https://gtr.ukri.org/project/A062AC30-6AFA-4374-B67B-F2ADC6E16083
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Analysis of skull morphometric characters in Owls (Strigiformes)
2018
https://content.sciendo.com/downloadpdf/journals/orhu/26/1/article-p41.xml
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Craniofacial diversification in the domestic pigeon and the evolution of the avian skull.
12 Mar 2017
https://europepmc.org/article/med/28812673
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The shapes of bird beaks are highly controlled by nondietary factors
May 10, 2016
https://www.pnas.org/content/113/19/5352
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Birds of prey constrained in the beak evolution race
April 26, 2016
https://phys.org/news/2016-04-birds-prey-constrained-beak-evolution.html
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Why raptors are losing the race in beak evolution
May 7, 2016
http://www.biosphereonline.com/2016/05/07/raptors-losing-race-beak-evolution/
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Unlike Darwin's Finches, Raptor Beaks Come In One Shape
https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/unlike-darwins-finches-raptor-beaks-come-limited-shapes/
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How the development of skulls and beaks made Darwin's finches one of the most diverse species
February 3, 2020
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/02/200203141441.htm
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Analysis of skull morphometric characters in diurnal raptors (Accipitriformes and Falconiformes)
27 Jul 2019
https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/orhu/27/1/article-p117.xml
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Wonderchicken fossil casts new light on bird evolution
March 24, 2020
The oldest known bird fossil, from the age of dinosaurs, has skull features similar to modern chickens. The scientists who found it have nicknamed it “Wonderchicken.” It’s providing valuable insights into the evolution of birds.
https://earthsky.org/earth/wonderchicken-oldest-fossil-modern-bird
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Unique skull network complexity of Tyrannosaurus rex among land vertebrates
06 February 2019
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-37976-8
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Development and evolution of the tetrapod skull–neck boundary
07 January 2020
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12578
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Homology of the cranial vault in birds: New insights based on embryonic fate-mapping and character analysis
Aug 2016
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Alternative-hypothesis-for-the-evolution-of-the-cranial-vault-in-birds-and-other_fig2_306032520
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Sexing of chicken eggs by fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy through the shell membrane
February 23, 2018
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0192554
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Morphological variation under domestication: how variable are chickens?
08 August 2018
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.180993
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How Dinosaurs Shrank and Became Birds
June 12, 2015
Modern birds appeared to emerge in a snap of evolutionary time. But new research illuminates the long series of evolutionary changes that made the transformation possible
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-dinosaurs-shrank-and-became-birds/
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Evolutionary History of the Chicken (pigeon, and other birds) + Domestication
1 May, 2013
https://blogs.lt.vt.edu/chickens/2013/05/01/evolutionary-history-of-the-chicken-pigeon-and-other-birds/
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Can Scientists Turn Birds Back Into Dinosaur Ancestors?
https://carlzimmer.com/can-scientists-turn-birds-back-into-dinosaur-ancestors/
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Curious Kids: how can chickens run around after their heads have been chopped off?
September 25, 2018
https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-can-chickens-run-around-after-their-heads-have-been-chopped-off-103701
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A comparative analysis of the avian skull: Woodpeckers and chickens
2018
http://meyersgroup.ucsd.edu/papers/journals/Meyers%20449.pdf
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A Natural Stress Deflector on the Head? Mechanical and Functional Evaluation of the Woodpecker Skull Bones
29 January 2019
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adts.201800152
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Woodpecker Inspires Designers, Knocks Evolution
2011
https://www.icr.org/article/woodpecker-inspires-designers-knocks
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Woodpeckers show signs of possible brain damage, but that might not be a bad thing
February 2, 2018
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180202140910.htm
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A Lifetime of Hammering Trees Might Affect Woodpecker Brains After All
February 09, 2018
A new study into the woodpecker brain shows proteins linked to CTE in football players, but it’s unclear whether birds suffer the same fate
https://www.audubon.org/news/a-lifetime-hammering-trees-might-affect-woodpecker-brains-after-all
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Effect of Microstructure of Spongy Bone in Different Parts of Woodpecker’s Skull on Resistance to Impact Injury
2013
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jnm/2013/924564/
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The skull of the golden-fronted woodpecker protects it from brain injury by absorbing shock via a plate-like spongey bone in the frontal cranium.
October 22, 2016
https://asknature.org/strategy/skull-protects-brain-from-impact/
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Anatomy and Evolution of the Woodpecker's Tongue
2003
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/woodpecker/woodpecker.html
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Structural analysis of the tongue and hyoid apparatus in a woodpecker
2017
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5063634/
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The respiratory system of birds facilitates efficient exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen via continuous unidirectional airflow and air sacs
March 24, 2020
https://asknature.org/strategy/respiratory-system-facilitates-efficient-gas-exchange/#.XohxYXJOnQw
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Bird, meet cousin alligator
November 4, 2010
https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2010/11/bird-meet-cousin-alligator/
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Six million-year-old bird skeleton points to arid past of Tibetan plateau
April 2, 2020
https://phys.org/news/2020-04-million-year-old-bird-skeleton-arid-tibetan.html
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What Makes Owls So Different From Other Bird Species?
May 2, 2017
https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/05/02/what-makes-owls-so-different-from-other-bird-species/#27bc8763707c
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Scientists track the brain-skull transition from dinosaurs to birds
2017
https://news.yale.edu/2017/09/11/scientists-track-brain-skull-transition-dinosaurs-birds
---------------------------------
How Do We Know Humans Are Primates?
Besides similar anatomy and behavior, there is DNA evidence. It confirms that humans are primates and that modern humans and chimpanzees diverged from a common ancestor between 8 and 6 million years ago. There is only about a 1.2 percent genetic difference between modern humans and chimpanzees throughout much of their genetic code.
http://humanorigins.si.edu/education/how-do-we-know/how-do-we-know-humans-are-primates
------------------------------------
Researchers hope newly excavated dino skull answers evolutionary questions
September 29, 2017
https://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/researchers-hope-newly-excavated-dino-skull-answers-evolutionary-questions-1.3612207
------------------------------------
What dinosaur and bird skulls tell us about brains
2017
https://www.futurity.org/dinosaur-bird-shift-skulls-1540352/
-----------------------------------
Big dinosaurs kept cool thanks to blood vessel clusters in their heads
October 16, 2019
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/dinosaurs-thermoregulation-blood-vessels-head
-----------------------------------
X-ray images of 74-million-year-old ‘Bisti Beast’ dinosaur skull reveal how ‘bone crushing adaptations’ arose in the T. rex family
2017
The skull of 'Bisti Beast' belonged to a relative of the Tyrannosaurus rex
A scan of the skull revealed that it had big-headed, bone crushing adaptations
The scan was the highest-resolution scan of a tyrannosaur skull ever done
This revealed presense of un-erupted teeth, the brain cavity, sinus cavities
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-4793782/X-ray-dinosaur-skull-gives-insight-T-rex-evolution.html
----------------------------------
New tyrannosaur from the mid-Cretaceous of Uzbekistan clarifies evolution of giant body sizes and advanced senses in tyrant dinosaurs
2016
Tyrannosaurs—the iconic group of dinosaurian carnivores that includes Tyrannosaurus rex—dominated latest Cretaceous ecosystems with their colossal sizes and sophisticated senses. A gap in the mid-Cretaceous fossil record between these giant apex predators and their older, smaller relatives makes it difficult to understand how the characteristic body size and ecological habits of T. rex and kin developed. A new species from Uzbekistan fills this gap. This horse-sized animal shows that tyrannosaurs had yet to achieve huge size at this time but had already evolved key brain and sensory features of the gigantic latest Cretaceous species. Tyrannosaurs apparently developed giant body size rapidly, late in the Cretaceous, and their success may have been enabled by their early-evolving keen senses.
https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2016/03/08/1600140113
----------------------------------
Unique imaging of a dinosaur's skull tells evolutionary tale
August 15, 2017
Collaboration creates highest-resolution scan of a large tyrannosaur skull
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170815095038.htm
----------------------------------
Tyrannosaurus Rex's Bite Was so Powerful It Should Have Shattered the Dinosaur's Own Skull. Here's Why It Didn't
9/25/19
https://www.newsweek.com/tyrannosaurus-rex-bite-powerful-dinosaur-skull-1461253
-----------------------------------
Sensitive T. rex? This new dino might change the face of tyrannosaurs, evolution
March 30, 2017
https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2017/0330/Sensitive-T.-rex-This-new-dino-might-change-the-face-of-tyrannosaurs-evolution
----------------------------------
Radioactive dinosaur skull helped researchers make new discovery
February 4, 2020
https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/24/world/new-allosaurus-dinosaur-fossil-scn/index.html
----------------------------------
Aquatic adaptation in the skull of carnivorous dinosaurs (Theropoda: Spinosauridae) and the evolution of aquatic habits in spinosaurids
January 2019
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667117303427
----------------------------------
Birds' unique skulls linked to young dinosaur brains
2017
https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/181581/birds-unique-skulls-linked-young-dinosaur/
---------------------------------
The skull evolution of oviraptorosaurian dinosaurs: the role of niche partitioning in diversification
November 07, 2019
https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/jeb.13557/
---------------------------------
Craniodental functional evolution in sauropodomorph dinosaurs
August 2017
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/craniodental-functional-evolution-in-sauropodomorph-dinosaurs/36E27FB35DC8CC3CB68E9377EE43936D
---------------------------------
Dinosaur discovery sheds new light on how raptors evolved
October 11, 2019
Near-complete fossil found in Alberta reveals that North American and Asian raptors had distinct family trees.
https://www.folio.ca/dinosaur-discovery-sheds-new-light-on-how-raptors-evolved/
---------------------------------
Unprecedented Fossil Provides New Understanding of Bird Evolution
2018
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/unprecedented-fossil-provides-new-understanding-of-bird-evolution/
----------------------------------
How humans shaped the evolution of the world’s most common bird
https://www.bbcearth.com/blog/?article=how-humans-shaped-the-evolution-of-the-worlds-most-common-bird
----------------------------------
“Andrew”: The Smallest Diplodocus Skull Ever Discovered Reveals Clues About The Group's Evolution.
October 12, 2018
https://paleontologyworld.com/dinosaurs-%E2%80%93-species-encycolpedia-paleontologists-curiosities/%E2%80%9Candrew%E2%80%9D-smallest-diplodocus-skull-ever
---------------------------------
Fossil of 'first giant' dinosaur discovered in Argentina
10 July 2018
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-44744153
------------------------------------
Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: the evolution of gigantism
2011
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3045712/
-----------------------------------
First complete sauropod dinosaur skull from the Cretaceous of the Americas and the evolution of sauropod dentition
2010
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2841758/
-----------------------------------
New Species of Giant Predatory Dinosaur Discovered in Thailand Provides a New Glimpse at Dinosaur Evolution
October 13, 2019
https://scitechdaily.com/new-species-of-giant-predatory-dinosaur-discovered-in-thailand-provides-a-new-glimpse-at-dinosaur-evolution/
--------------------------------------
Skull remains of the dinosaur Saturnalia tupiniquim (Late Triassic, Brazil): With comments on the early evolution of sauropodomorph feeding behaviour
September 6, 2019
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0221387
--------------------------------------
Dimetrodon Is Not a Dinosaur: Using Tree Thinking to Understand the Ancient Relatives of Mammals and their Evolution
05 February 2009
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0117-4
--------------------------------
Scientists just found soft tissue inside a dinosaur fossil. Here's why that's so exciting.
Jun 9, 2015
The photo above, from a new study published today in Nature Communications and led by Sergio Bertazzo of Imperial College London, shows an extremely zoomed-in view of a 75-million-year-old theropod claw, taken from the London Natural History Museum's collection. When researchers scraped tiny pieces off the fossil and looked at them under an electron microscope, they found tiny structures that look a lot like collagen fibers present in our own ligaments, tendons, and bones.
https://www.vox.com/2015/6/9/8748035/dinosaur-fossil-blood-proteins
--------------------------------
Fish that outlived dinosaurs reveals secrets of ancient skull evolution
Apr 18, 2019
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQrNsA3yxFY
---------------------------------
'Stunning' Fossil Discovery Reveals How Mammals Flourished After The Dinosaurs Died
25 OCTOBER 2019
https://www.sciencealert.com/stunning-fossil-trove-shows-how-mammals-flourished-after-the-dinosaurs-died
---------------------------------
Dinosaur-Era Bird Found With Shockingly Intact Skull
2018
The unprecedented Ichthyornis fossil from Kansas offers fresh perspective on bird evolution.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/05/fossil-bird-skull-3d-dinosaurs-evolution-paleontology-science/
---------------------------------
Dinosaur ossification centres in embryonic birds uncover developmental evolution of the skull
19 November 2018
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0713-1/
---------------------------------
The skull evolution of oviraptorosaurian dinosaurs: the role of niche partitioning in diversification
17 October 2019
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jeb.13557
---------------------------------
Koolasuchus - The Antarctic Amphibian That Ate Dinosaurs
Sep 29, 2019
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-lPDo_KMiA
---------------------------------
The Evolution of Sea Turtles
Oct 6, 2019
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h6Zw8A_IYGc
---------------------------------
Ecological Correlates and Evolutionary Divergence in the Skull of Turtles: A Geometric Morphometric Assessment
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15764561
----------------------------------
Potentially Oldest Animal Found In 890 Million Year Old Fossil
Aug 18, 2021
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_rJJIFDn188
----------------------------------
Smallest Known Dinosaur Found in Amber
A bird skull from Myanmar hints at a lost world of tiny fossils that are waiting to be unearthed
March 11, 2020
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/smallest-known-dinosaur-found-in-amber/
---------------------------------
New Hummingbird-Sized Dinosaur Identified from Skull Trapped in Amber
Fossil shows that miniature dinosaurs likely shared the earth with giants during the Mesozoic Era.
https://www.insidescience.org/news/new-hummingbird-sized-dinosaur-identified-skull-trapped-amber
----------------------------------
Climbing and Pecking Adaptations in Some North American Woodpeckers
1965
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1365612?seq=1
----------------------------------------------------
Morphological adaptations for relatively larger brains in hummingbird skulls
27 September 2018
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.4513
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Some Hummingbirds Evolved Bills That Make Them Better at Fighting—but Worse at Feeding
January 4, 2019
A new study adds complexity to the notion that hummingbirds are ‘all about drinking efficiently from flowers,’ as one researcher puts it
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/some-hummingbirds-have-evolved-bills-make-them-better-fightingand-worse-feeding-180971173/
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Discovery of hummingbird-sized Mesozoic dinosaur reveals new species in bird evolution
March 11, 2020
https://yubanet.com/scitech/discovery-of-hummingbird-sized-mesozoic-dinosaur-reveals-new-species-in-bird-evolution/
-----------------------------------------------------
Hummingbird Evolution Was Fast, but Is Slowing
April 03, 2014
https://www.livescience.com/44593-first-hummingbird-evolutionary-tree.html
-----------------------------------------------------
Hummingbird Evolution Is Booming
April 3, 2014
The successful, 22 million-year-old group could double in its number of species before leveling off
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hummingbird-evolution-is-booming/
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Endless skulls most beautiful
January 16, 2018
https://www.pnas.org/content/115/3/448
----------------------------------------------------
Iwaniuk and his unique bird brain collection is central to flight study
January 24, 2011
https://www.uleth.ca/unews/article/iwaniuk-and-his-unique-bird-brain-collection-central-flight-study#.XojT73JOlPY
-----------------------------------------------------
Dinosaur ossification centres in embryonic birds uncover developmental evolution of the skull.
18 Nov 2018
https://europepmc.org/article/med/30455438
-----------------------------------------------------
Dull teeth, long skulls, specialized bites evolved in unrelated plant-eating dinosaurs
December 5, 2019
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191205141752.htm
-----------------------------------------------------
The Strange Flying Animals You've Never Heard Of
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150218-flying-animals-you-never-heard-of
---------------------------------
Short Snouts Gave Fruit Bats a Forceful Bite
2011
https://www.livescience.com/17173-bat-skull-evolution-fruit.html
--------------------------------
Correlation of skull morphology and bite force in a bird-eating bat
19 March 2020
https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-020-00354-0
--------------------------------
Morphological correlates of bite force and diet in the skull and mandible of phyllostomid bats
29 June 2009
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01549.x
---------------------------------
Form, Function, and Evolution in Skulls and Teeth of Bats
May 1998
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=natrespapers
---------------------------------
No Teeth, Long Tongue, No Problem - Adaptations for Ant-eating
2016
http://thatslifesci.com.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws.com/2016-09-05-Adaptations-for-Ant-Eating-AVanderLinden/
-------------------------------
A Fossilized Blood-Engorged Mosquito Is Found For the First Time Ever
October 14, 2013
Testing shows that a 46 million-year-old fossilized mosquito, found by amateur fossil hunters in Montana, contains the blood of an unknown ancient creature
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/a-fossilized-blood-engorged-mosquito-is-found-for-the-first-time-ever-1749788/
-------------------------------
The Unique Mosquito That Lives in the Underground
When construction of the London Underground began in the 19th Century, there was an unexpected consequence: evolution
24 March 2016
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160323-the-unique-mosquito-that-lives-in-the-london-underground
-------------------------------
Evolution of Insect Eye Development: First Insights from Fruit Fly, Grasshopper and Flour Beetle
01 August 2003
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/43/4/508/617750
-------------------------------
Comes naturally? Using stick insects to study natural selection, predictability of evolution
February 15, 2018
https://phys.org/news/2018-02-naturally-insects-natural-evolution.html
-------------------------------
Chernobyl’s Bugs: The Art And Science Of Life After Nuclear Fallout
April 26, 2014
In 1986, a Swiss artist set out to document insects from regions affected by the Chernobyl disaster, and science is starting to catch up with her
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/chernobyls-bugs-art-and-science-life-after-nuclear-fallout-180951231/
-------------------------------
The Largest Insect Ever Existed Was a Giant 'Dragonfly'
2018
http://www.geologyin.com/2018/01/the-largest-insect-ever-existed-was.html
-------------------------------
The Giant Fleas which Sucked Dino Blood | Parasitober
Nov 7, 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6jvkecx2s0
-------------------------------
54-million-year-old skull reveals early evolution of primate brains
June 22, 2009
The skull belongs to a group of primitive primates known as Plesiadapiforms, which evolved in the 10 million years between the extinction of the dinosaurs and the first traceable ancestors of modern primates. The 1.5-inch-long skull was found fully intact, allowing researchers to make the first virtual mold of a primitive primate brain.
https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/54-million-year-old-skull-reveals-early-evolution-of-primate-brains/
-------------------------------
The Craniofacial Evidence for Anthropoid and Tarsier Relationships
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-9197-6_15
------------------------------------
Cousin Achilles: The Little Primate That Could
June 15, 2013
A tiny primate dubbed Archicebus achilles, dated about 55 million years, is taking center stage as the oldest known primate and, at less than an ounce, the smallest.1 Evolutionary paleontologists believe it is the missing link between tarsier-like primates and the anthropoid primate line that includes humans. Xijun Ni, lead author of the paper in Nature, says, “This skeleton will tell us a lot of the story about the origins of primates and about our remote ancestors.”
https://answersingenesis.org/missing-links/cousin-achilles-the-little-primate-that-could/
------------------------------------
Skeletons
https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/support-systems-in-animals/06-support-systems-in-animals-02
6.2 Skeletons (ESG82)
The skeleton is the supporting structure of an organism. There are three different types of skeletons: hydrostatic skeletons, endoskeletons and exoskeletons.
Hydrostatic skeleton: Water exerts pressure on muscular walls, for example, in jellyfish.
Exoskeleton: The stable chitinous or mineralised outer shell of an organism, for example, the shell of a grasshopper or prawn.
Endoskeleton: A cartilaginous or mineralized support structure inside the body, for example, in humans and other vertebrates.
-----------------------------------------------
Evolution of hyperossification expands skull diversity in frogs
March 27, 2020
https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2020/03/26/2000872117
------------------------------------
Skulls gone wild: How and why some frogs evolved extreme heads
March 23, 2020
https://phys.org/news/2020-03-skulls-wild-frogs-evolved-extreme.html
-------------------------------------
Frogs have evolved extreme skulls with hidden fangs and horns
March 24, 2020
https://www.cnet.com/news/frogs-have-evolved-extreme-skulls-with-hidden-fangs-and-horns/
------------------------------------
Meet ‘Jaws’, the South American horned frog with a big bite
https://theconversation.com/meet-jaws-the-south-american-horned-frog-with-a-big-bite-80750
------------------------------------
Testing for historical patterns of change: a case study with frog pectoral girdles
1988
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/testing-for-historical-patterns-of-change-a-case-study-with-frog-pectoral-girdles/38583DCEA4CDEA5B19E5A6BB35AAFE22
------------------------------------
The Palaeozoic Ancestry of Salamanders, Frogs and Caecilians
May 2007
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/213769866_The_Palaeozoic_Ancestry_of_Salamanders_Frogs_and_Caecilians
------------------------------------
The Frog Skeletons vs. Human Skeletons
https://animals.howstuffworks.com/amphibians/frog2.htm
------------------------------------
Jumping in frogs: assessing the design of the skeletal system by anatomically realistic modeling and forward dynamic simulation
2002
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/205/12/1683
------------------------------------
Missing Link Fossil Settles Frog Evolution Debate
2008
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3342595/Missing-link-fossil-settles-frog-evolution-debate.html
------------------------------------
Network architecture associated with the highly specialized hindlimb of frogs
May 17, 2017
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0177819
------------------------------------
The complex evolutionary history of the tympanic middle ear in frogs and toads (Anura)
28 September 2016
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep34130
------------------------------------
A striking new genus and species of cave-dwelling frog (Amphibia: Anura: Microhylidae: Asterophryinae) from Thailand
2017
https://peerj.com/articles/4422.pdf
-----------------------------------
Venomous Frogs
http://sciencenetlinks.com/science-news/science-updates/venomous-frogs/
-------------------------------------
Convergent evolution of chemical defense in poison frogs and arthropod prey between Madagascar and the Neotropics
2005
https://www.pnas.org/content/102/33/11617
-------------------------------------------
The evolution of coloration and toxicity in the poison frog family (Dendrobatidae)
2001
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC33450/
-------------------------------------------
Convergent evolution of chemical defense in poison frogs and arthropod prey between Madagascar and the Neotropics.
2005
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16087888
-------------------------------------------
Poisonous frogs evolve to sing longer and louder
17 October 2014
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn26402-poisonous-frogs-evolve-to-sing-longer-and-louder/
--------------------------------------------
Morphological comparison of five species of poison dart frogs of the genus Ranitomeya (Anura: Dendrobatidae) including the skeleton, the muscle system and inner organs
February 24, 2017
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0171669
--------------------------------------------
Evolution of Diet Specialization in Poison-Dart Frogs (Dendrobatidae)
1995
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3892588?seq=1
--------------------------------------------
The Effect of Miniaturized Body Size on Skeletal Morphology in Frogs
2002
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3061599?seq=1
--------------------------------------------
Skin gland concentrations adapted to different evolutionary pressures in the head and posterior regions of the caecilian Siphonops annulatus
2018
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-22005-5
Abstract
Amphibian skin is rich in mucous glands and poison glands, secreting substances important for gas exchange and playing a fundamental role in chemical defense against predators and microorganisms. In the caecilian Siphonops annulatus (Mikan, 1920) we observed a concentration of enlarged mucous glands in the head region. In the posterior region of the body a similar concentration is made up of enlarged poison glands. These accumulations of glands structurally resemble the macroglands previously reported in anurans and salamanders. The skin glands in these regions are each surrounded by collagen walls forming a honeycomb-like structure. The collagen network in the head region firmly attaches to tiny pits in the bones of the skull. The two extremities of the body produce different secretions, containing exclusive molecules. Considering the fossorial lifestyle of caecilians, it seems evident that the secretions of the head and caudal region serve different functions. The anterior macrogland of mucous glands, rich in mucous/lipid secretion, in conjunction with the funnel-shaped head, may act to lubricate the body and penetrate the soil, thus facilitating locomotion underground. The blunt posterior end bearing an internalized macrogland of poison glands in the dermis may act in chemical defense and/or by blocking invasion of tunnels.
--------------------------------------------
THE EVOLUTION OF THE VENOM APPARATUS IN SNAKES FROM COLUBRIDS TO VIPERIDS & ELAPIDS
1982
https://public.wsu.edu/~kkardong/Web%20of%20KVK_06b/Publications/Evolution_venom_app82.pdf
--------------------------------------------
Viperous fangs: Development and evolution of the venom canal
2008
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925477308000853
--------------------------------------------
Rapid venom evolution in pit vipers may be defensive; Marsupials that prey on venomous snakes also evolve rapidly
2011
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718155618.htm
--------------------------------------------
Snake venom evolved for prey, not protection (Debated)
March 25, 2020
https://phys.org/news/2020-03-snake-venom-evolved-prey.html
--------------------------------------------
Venoms of Rear-Fanged Snakes: New Proteins and Novel Activities
23 July 2019
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00279/full
Snake venom research has focused on front-fanged venomous snakes because of the high incidence of human morbidity and mortality from envenomations and larger venom yields of these species, while venoms from rear-fanged snakes have been largely neglected. Rear-fanged snakes (RFS) are a phylogenetically diverse collection of species that feed on a variety of prey and show varying prey capture strategies, from constriction to envenomation. In general, RFS venoms share many toxin families with front-fanged snakes, and venoms generally are either a neurotoxic three-finger toxin (3FTx)-dominated venom or an enzymatic metalloproteinase-dominated venom. These venoms have also been discovered to contain several unique venom protein families. New venom protein superfamilies in RFS venoms include matrix metalloproteinases, distinct from but closely related to snake venom metalloproteinases, veficolins, and acid lipases. Specialized three-finger toxins that target select prey taxa have evolved in some RFS venoms, and this prey capture strategy has appeared in multiple RFS species, from Old World Boiga to New World Spilotes and Oxybelis. Though this same protein superfamily is commonly found in the venoms of elapid (front-fanged) snakes, no elapid 3FTxs appear to show prey-specific toxicity (with the exception of perhaps Micrurus). Neofunctionalization of Spilotes sulphureus 3FTx genes has even resulted in the evolution within a single venom of 3FTxs selectively neurotoxic to different prey taxa (mammals or lizards), allowing this non-constricting RFS to take larger mammalian prey. The large number of 3FTx protein sequences available, together with a growing database of RFS venom 3FTxs, make possible predictions concerning structure-function relationships among these toxins and the basis of selective toxicity of specific RFS venom 3FTxs. Rear-fanged snake venoms are therefore of considerable research interest due to the evolutionary novelties they contain, providing insights into the evolution of snake venom proteins and potential predator-prey coevolution in a broader phylogenetic context. Because of the limited complexity of these venoms, they represent a more tractable source to inform about the biological roles of specific venom proteins that are found in the venoms of this rich diversity of snakes.
-------------------------------------------
Evolutionary history of burrowing asps (Lamprophiidae: Atractaspidinae) with emphasis on fang evolution and prey selection
April 17, 2019
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0214889
-------------------------------------------
Evolution of tiger snake skulls in response to prey type and size between island and mainland populations
Jan 1 2019
https://sciences.adelaide.edu.au/study/honours/honours-projects/evolution-of-tiger-snake-skulls
-------------------------------------------
New fossils shed light on how snakes got their bite and lost their legs
November 20, 2019
https://phys.org/news/2019-11-fossils-snakes-lost-legs.html
--------------------------------------------
Has snake fang evolution lost its bite? New insights from a structural mechanics viewpoint
2017
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2017.0293
--------------------------------------------
Remarkable Fossils Push Back Snake Origins by 65 Million Years
January 27, 2015
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/remarkable-fossils-push-back-snake-origins-by-65-million-years/
--------------------------------------------
An ancient snake’s cheekbone sheds light on evolution of modern snake skulls
Nov 20, 2019
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=je5Im8Getic
--------------------------------------------
How a Fossilized Snake With Legs Fits Into the Lineage of Lizards
December 6, 2019
“Snakes are just fancy lizards,” says one evolutionary biologist.
https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/difference-between-legless-lizard-snake
--------------------------------------------
Could Poison Frogs Crush Addiction?
Frog evolution could one day help block nicotine and other substances
https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/how-poison-frogs-could-crush-addiction
---------------------------------------------
Venoms in medicine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venoms_in_medicine
----------------------------------------------
The bite that cures: how we’re turning venom into medicine
July, 2019
https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/the-bite-that-cures-how-were-turning-venom-into-medicine/
----------------------------------------------
How Animal Venoms Are Helping to Treat a Wide Range of Medical Conditions
2018
https://www.livescience.com/63477-animal-venom-drug-discovery.html
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Snake venom components in medicine: From the symbolic rod of Asclepius to tangible medical research and application.
2018
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30261311
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Venoms That Save Lives
April 4, 2018
https://splice-bio.com/venoms-that-save-lives/
It is common knowledge that the venom from a snake or scorpion can be dangerous. Less known is the fact that several drugs are derived from the toxins of venomous animals. Throughout history, humans have used toxins for medical purposes. Today, modern medicine uses the vast amount of toxins as inspiration for developing novel drugs. Despite the potential of venom-derived drugs, only seven have been approved so far.
Venomous animals have existed for millions of years and are found in ecosystems around the world. There is a distinction between poisonous and venomous animals, due to the difference in how the toxins are delivered. Venomous animals inject their venom into other organisms using a specialized apparatus, such as fangs or a stinger. The venom is produced in a gland attached to this apparatus. In poisonous animals, the entire body, or parts of it, contain the poisonous substance. Poisonous animals are thus harmful when the animal is touched or eaten.
----------------------------------------------
Scorpions adapt their stinging, stingers and sting contents to minimize costs of venom use
June 10, 2019
https://phys.org/news/2019-06-scorpions-stingers-contents-minimize-venom.html
---------------------------------------------
How venoms are shaping medical advances
https://www.bbcearth.com/blog/?article=how-venoms-are-shaping-medical-advances
----------------------------------------------
Evolutionary Ecology of Fish Venom: Adaptations and Consequences of Evolving a Venom System
December 2018
https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/2/60/htm
--------------------------------------------
Evolutionary Context of Venom in Animals
28 March 2017
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6458-3_16
---------------------------------------------
Five unusual toxic animals and their chemical weapons
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/308864
---------------------------------------------
Platypus Venom: a Review
2007
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228347583_Platypus_Venom_a_Review
--------------------------------------------
Why Hasn’t Evolution Made Another Platypus?
September 14, 2017
http://nautil.us/issue/52/the-hive/why-hasnt-evolution-made-another-platypus
--------------------------------------------
Out of the Mouths of Snakes
DNA analysis and 3D imaging have revealed how snakes evolved their huge gape independently across different lineages.
http://www.australasianscience.com.au/article/issue-november-2016/out-mouths-snakes.html
----------------------------------------------
The ecological origins of snakes as revealed by skull evolution
2018
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02788-3
Abstract
The ecological origin of snakes remains amongst the most controversial topics in evolution, with three competing hypotheses: fossorial; marine; or terrestrial. Here we use a geometric morphometric approach integrating ecological, phylogenetic, paleontological, and developmental data for building models of skull shape and size evolution and developmental rate changes in squamates. Our large-scale data reveal that whereas the most recent common ancestor of crown snakes had a small skull with a shape undeniably adapted for fossoriality, all snakes plus their sister group derive from a surface-terrestrial form with non-fossorial behavior, thus redirecting the debate toward an underexplored evolutionary scenario. Our comprehensive heterochrony analyses further indicate that snakes later evolved novel craniofacial specializations through global acceleration of skull development. These results highlight the importance of the interplay between natural selection and developmental processes in snake origin and diversification, leading first to invasion of a new habitat and then to subsequent ecological radiations.
----------------------------------------------
Activity of Head Muscles During Feeding by Snakes: A Comparative Study
1983
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/23/2/383/302313
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Morphology of the lower jaw and suspensorium in the Texas blindsnake, Leptotyphlops dulcis (Scolecophidia: Leptotyphlopidae).
2006
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16429440
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Patterns of postnatal ontogeny of the skull and lower jaw of snakes as revealed by micro‐CT scan data and three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics
2016
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5108151/
----------------------------------------------
Feeding in Snakes: Form, Function, and Evolution of the Feeding System
http://www.anthonyherrel.fr/publications/Moon%20et%20al%202019%20Feeding%20In%20Vertebrates.pdf
----------------------------------------------
Prey Transport Mechanisms in Blindsnakes and the Evolution of Unilateral Feeding Systems in Snakes
2001
https://www.brown.edu/Departments/EEB/brainerd_lab/pdf/Kley-2001-AmZool.pdf
----------------------------------------------
'Protovipers' and the Evolution of Snake Fangs
1979
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2407632?seq=1
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Homology of the Jaw Muscles in Lizards and Snakes—A Solution from a Comparative Gnathostome Approach
31 January 2014
https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ar.22857
---------------------------------------------
Quadrate bone
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrate_bone
The quadrate bone is part of a skull in most tetrapods, including amphibians, sauropsids (reptiles, birds), and early synapsids. In these animals it connects to the quadratojugal and squamosal in the skull, and forms part of the jaw joint (the other part is the articular bone at the rear end of the lower jaw).
It is formed by endochondral ossification and is formed from the hindmost part of the primitive cartilaginous upper jaw.
(Anapsid skull, Quadrate bone marked q)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Biomechanical assessment of evolutionary changes in the lepidosaurian skull
May 19, 2009
https://www.pnas.org/content/106/20/8273
-----------------------------------------------
Evolution of postcranial skeleton in worm lizards inferred from its status in the Cretaceous stem-amphisbaenian Slavoia darevskii
https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app62/app002942016.pdf
-----------------------------------------------
A Fossil Snake With Four Legs
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/phenomena/2015/07/23/a-fossil-snake-with-four-legs/
-----------------------------------------------
New skulls and skeletons of the Cretaceous legged snake Najash, and the evolution of the modern snake body plan
Nov 2019
https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/11/eaax5833
Abstract
Snakes represent one of the most dramatic examples of the evolutionary versatility of the vertebrate body plan, including body elongation, limb loss, and skull kinesis. However, understanding the earliest steps toward the acquisition of these remarkable adaptations is hampered by the very limited fossil record of early snakes. Here, we shed light on the acquisition of the snake body plan using micro–computed tomography scans of the first three-dimensionally preserved skulls of the legged snake Najash and a new phylogenetic hypothesis. These findings elucidate the initial sequence of bone loss that gave origin to the modern snake skull. Morphological and molecular analyses including the new cranial data provide robust support for an extensive basal radiation of early snakes with hindlimbs and pelves, demonstrating that this intermediate morphology was not merely a transient phase between limbed and limbless body plans.
------------------------------------------------
The Origin Of Vertebrates And The Rise Of Fishes
https://www2.gwu.edu/~darwin/BiSc151/Fishes/Fish.html
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Moray Eels Are Uniquely Equipped to Pack Big Prey Into Their Narrow Bodies
2007
https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=109985
----------------------------------------------
The Mystery of the Toothy Eels
https://research.pbsci.ucsc.edu/eeb/mehta/TheMysteryoftheToothyEels.htm
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Biting disrupts integration to spur skull evolution in eels
https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms6505
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'Alien' Jaws Help Moray Eels Feed
September 6, 2007
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070905134523.htm
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Absurd Creature of the Week: This Eel Fires Extra Alien Jaws Out of Its Throat
2014
https://www.wired.com/2014/04/absurd-creature-of-the-week-this-eel-fires-extra-alien-jaws-out-of-its-throat/
----------------------------------------------
Sheepshead Fish: Facts About The Fish With Human Teeth
12 Nov 2021
https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/animals/sheepshead-fish-facts-fish-human-teeth.html
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Evolutionary constraints revealed in diversity of fish skulls
November 17, 2014
Evolution of biting in eels allowed remarkable diversification of skull shapes, whereas suction feeding constrains skull shapes of most fish
https://news.ucsc.edu/2014/11/fish-skulls.html
----------------------------------------------
Thyroid hormone modulation during zebrafish development recapitulates evolved diversity in danionin jaw protrusion mechanics
August 2019
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ede.12299
----------------------------------------------
Evolution of Levers and Linkages in the Feeding Mechanisms of Fishes
2004
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3884601?seq=1
---------------------------------------------
The Jaw Adductor Muscle Complex in Teleostean Fishes: Evolution, Homologies and Revised Nomenclature (Osteichthyes: Actinopterygii)
April 2, 2013
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0060846
---------------------------------------------
Convergent Evolution of Jaws between Spinosaurid Dinosaurs and Pike Conger Eels
2 September 2016
https://bioone.org/journals/acta-palaeontologica-polonica/volume-61/issue-4/app.00284.2016/Convergent-Evolution-of-Jaws-between-Spinosaurid-Dinosaurs-and-Pike-Conger/10.4202/app.00284.2016.full
--------------------------------------------
Did Eels Evolve Better By Biting?
2014
https://answersingenesis.org/aquatic-animals/did-eels-evolve-better-by-biting/
---------------------------------------------
Biting releases constraints on moray eel feeding kinematics
2007
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/210/3/495
---------------------------------------------
Concealed Weapon: Eels' Second Set of Teeth
September 6, 2007
https://www.npr.org/transcripts/14194579
---------------------------------------------
Moray Eel Evolution Baffles Scientists; 'Species Don’t Do That'
https://www.underwatertimes.com/news.php?article_id=90271085346
---------------------------------------------
How the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) loses its skeletal framework across lifetime
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2016.1550
Abstract
European eels (Anguilla anguilla) undertake an impressive 5 000 km long migration from European fresh waters through the North Atlantic Ocean to the Sargasso Sea. Along with sexual maturation, the eel skeleton undergoes a remarkable morphological transformation during migration, where a hitherto completely obscure bone loss phenomenon occurs. To unravel mechanisms of the maturation-related decay of the skeleton, we performed a multiscale assessment of eels' bones at different life-cycle stages. Accordingly, the skeleton reflects extensive bone loss that is mediated via multinucleated bone-resorbing osteoclasts, while other resorption mechanisms such as osteocytic osteolysis or matrix demineralization were not observed. Preserving mechanical stability and releasing minerals for energy metabolism are two mutually exclusive functions of the skeleton that are orchestrated in eels through the presence of two spatially segregated hard tissues: cellular bone and acellular notochord. The cellular bone serves as a source of mineral release following osteoclastic resorption, whereas the mineralized notochord sheath, which is inaccessible for resorption processes due to an unmineralized cover layer, ensures sufficient mechanical stability as a part of the notochord sheath. Clearly, an eel's skeleton is structurally optimized to meet the metabolic challenge of fasting and simultaneous sexual development during an exhausting journey to spawning areas, while the function of the vertebral column is maintained to achieve this goal.
--------------------------------------------
Elongation of the Body in Eels
December 2010
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/50/6/1091/633110
---------------------------------------------
Meet a lamprey. Your ancestors looked just like it
2015
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20151102-meet-a-lamprey-your-ancestors-looked-just-like-it
---------------------------------------------
14 Fun Facts About Hagfish
2012
These frightening creatures defend themselves with slime and chow down on animal carcasses
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/14-fun-facts-about-hagfish-77165589/
---------------------------------------------
Evolution and genomic organization of muscle microRNAs in fish genomes
2014
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-014-0196-x
Background
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules with an important role upon post-transcriptional regulation. These molecules have been shown essential for several cellular processes in vertebrates, including muscle biology. Many miRNAs were described as exclusively or highly expressed in skeletal and/or cardiac muscle. However, knowledge on the genomic organization and evolution of muscle miRNAs has been unveiled in a reduced number of vertebrates and mostly only reflects their organization in mammals, whereas fish genomes remain largely uncharted. The main goal of this study was to elucidate particular features in the genomic organization and the putative evolutionary history of muscle miRNAs through a genome-wide comparative analysis of cartilaginous and bony fish genomes.
---------------------------------------------
‘Humans are just modified fish’
MONASH UNIVERSITY 6 OCT 2011
https://www.sciencealert.com/were-all-just-modified-fish
Three Australian fish – including the iconic lungfish – have provided an insight into the evolution of human beings.
A team of scientists led by Professor Peter Currie, Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute at Monash University and Dr Nicholas Cole, University of Sydney, have discovered how the muscles controlling the pelvic fins of some fish have cleared the way for the evolution of back legs in higher animals.
This innovation gave rise to the tetrapods, or four-legged creatures, along with our distant ancestors who made the first steps onto land some 400 million years ago.
Professor Currie said the genetics of a fish are not vastly different to our own.
“We have shown that the mechanism of pelvic muscle formation in bony fish is transitional between that in sharks and in our tetrapod ancestors.
“By examining the way the different fish species generated the muscles of their pelvic fins we were able to uncover the evolutionary forerunners of the hind limbs. Humans are just modified fish,” said Professor Currie.
Scientists have long known that the ancient lungfish species are the ancestors of the tetrapods. These fish could survive on land, breathing air and using their pelvic fins to propel themselves.
Australia is home to three species of the few remaining lungfish – two marine species and one inhabiting Queensland’s Mary River basin.
There have been big gaps in the knowledge of these fish until now. Most of the conclusions have been drawn from fossil skeletons, but the muscles critical to locomotion cannot be preserved in the fossil record.
The scientists used fish living today to trace the evolution of pelvic fin muscles to find out how the load bearing hind limbs of the tetrapods evolved.
To find differences in pelvic fin muscle formation, the researchers compared embryos of the descendants of species representing key turning points in vertebrate evolution.
They studied primitive cartilaginous fish: Australia’s bamboo shark and its cousin, the elephant shark; and three bony fish: the Australian lungfish, the zebrafish and the American paddlefish.
The scientists genetically engineered fish to trace the migration of precursor muscle cells in early developmental stages as the animal’s body took shape. These cells in the engineered fish emitted red or green light.
The team found that the bony fish had a different mechanism of pelvic fin muscle formation from that of the cartilaginous fish, a mechanism that was a stepping stone to the evolution of tetrapod physiology.
The full research article, Development and Evolution of the Muscles of the Pelvic Fin can be viewed at PLoS Biology.
---------------------------------------------
Lungfish provides insight to life on land: 'Humans are just modified fish'
2011
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111004180106.htm
---------------------------------------------
Lungfish: This fish can stay alive inside the ground for 4 years!
2017
A fish that can breathe oxygen directly from the air? Yes, this ancient species of fish still exists! Know more about them here.
https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/lungfish-961065-2017-02-17
---------------------------------------------
Transition in organ function during the evolution of air-breathing; insights from Arapaima gigas, an obligate air-breathing teleost from the Amazon
2004
http://jeb.biologists.org/content/207/9/1433
---------------------------------------------
Molecular cloning and characterization of pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone ÎČ-subunit cDNAs
2017
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0183545
---------------------------------------------
Whole Genome Sequencing of the Pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) Supports Independent Emergence of Major Teleost Clades
2018
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6143160/
Arapaima gigas belongs to the superorder Osteoglossomorpha of bony-tongued fishes whose tongue contains sharp bony teeth for disabling and shredding preys (Sanford and Lauder 1990; Burnie and Wilson 2001). Together with Elopomorpha (eels and tarpons) and Clupeocephala (most of extant fish species), the Osteoglossomorpha comprises one of the three main teleosts groups whose phylogenetic position has been controversial (Le et al. 1993; Inoue et al. 2003; Near et al. 2012; Betancur-R 2013; Faircloth et al. 2013; Chen et al. 2015; Hughes et al. 2018). Fossil records and some early molecular studies, including a recent comprehensive analysis of >300 Actinopterygii species (Hughes et al. 2018), placed Osteoglossomorpha as the oldest teleost group (Greenwood 1970; Inoue et al. 2003), while other studies placed Elopomorpha as the most ancestral one (Near et al. 2012; Betancur-R 2013; Faircloth et al. 2013). Recently, a phylogenetic study based on whole genome sequencing of the bony-tongued Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus) suggested that the branching of Elopomorpha and Osteoglossomorpha occurred almost simultaneously, placing them as sister lineages of Clupeocephala (Bian 2016). Within this context, the genome of the Pirarucu provides new insights to study the evolutionary history of teleosts as well as providing useful information for sustainable exploration of this giant Amazon fish. Here, we present the first whole genome assembly, gene annotation, and phylogenomic inference of the Pirarucu which should facilitate the molecular characterization and conservation of this economically important fish species.
---------------------------------------------
Evolution of the vertebrate jaw: homology and developmental constraints
2003
https://bioone.org/journals/paleontological-research/volume-7/issue-1/prpsj.7.89/Evolution-of-the-vertebrate-jaw-homology-and-developmental-constraints/10.2517/prpsj.7.89.full
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Ecomorphological diversification in squamates from conserved pattern of cranial integration
2018
https://www.pnas.org/content/116/29/14688
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Cranial ontogeny of Thamnophis radix (Serpentes: Colubroidea) with a re-evaluation of current paradigms of snake skull evolution
07 August 2019
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.182228
-----------------------------------------------
A Snake Version of Lucy
August 4, 2012
https://answersingenesis.org/reptiles/snake-version-lucy/
-----------------------------------------------
Yale researchers identify ‘missing-link snake’
2012
https://news.yale.edu/2012/07/25/few-bones-most-primitive-snake-emerges
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10 Foot Sea Snake with Weird Hole in Its Skull Found to Breath Through the Top of Its Head
9/4/19
https://www.newsweek.com/sea-snake-breaths-through-hole-top-head-1457563
-----------------------------------------------
Before Agriculture, Human Jaws Were a Perfect Fit for Human Teeth
2015
The emergence of agricultural practices initiated major changes to the jaw structure of ancient humans, leading to dental problems we still experience
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/how-dawn-farming-changed-our-mouths-worst-180954167/
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Birth of farming caused jaw-dropping changes to the human skull, scientists find
25 August 2017
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/08/25/birth-farming-caused-jaw-dropping-changes-human-skull-scientists/
-----------------------------------------------
Do Muscles Constrain Skull Shape Evolution in Strepsirrhines?
2018
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29330958
-----------------------------------------------
Functional relationships in the jaw apparatus of the chameleons and the evolution of adaptive complexes
29 March 2017
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S1062359016110066
-----------------------------------------------------------
Does diet drive the evolution of head shape and bite force in chameleons of the genus Bradypodion?
21 September 2016
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2435.12750
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The evolution of cranial design and performance in squamates: Consequences of skull-bone reduction on feeding behavior
02 May 2007
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/47/1/107/633197
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The only complete articulated early Miocene chameleon skull (Rusinga Island, Kenya) suggests an African origin for Madagascar’s endemic chameleons
10 January 2020
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-57014-5
------------------------------------------------------------
Kenyan fossil reveals chameleons may have 'rafted' from Africa to Madagascar
February 10, 2020
https://phys.org/news/2020-02-kenyan-fossil-reveals-chameleons-rafted.html
------------------------------------------------------------
'Cryptic intermediates' and the evolution of chameleons
2008
https://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/06/07/agamids-and-chameleons
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Chameleons do more than change color – their bones glow in the dark
https://massivesci.com/articles/chameleons-glow-dark-skeletons-animals/
------------------------------------------------------------
Widespread bone-based fluorescence in chameleons
2017
https://research.vu.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/44414519/Pr_tzel_et_al_2018_Scientific_Reports.pdf
------------------------------------------------------------
Hand/foot splitting and the ‘re-evolution’ of mesopodial skeletal elements during the evolution and radiation of chameleons
18 September 2015
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-015-0464-4
------------------------------------------------------------
Chameleon radiation byoceanic dispersal
http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol241/raxworthy%20chameleon%20radiation.pdf
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So, Amphibians Glow. Humans Just Couldn't See It—Until Now
02.27.2020
Bathe an amphibian in blue light and it glows a brilliant green. But what does this all mean?
https://www.wired.com/story/amphibians-glow/
--------------------------------------
Scientists Have Discovered These Toxic Frogs Have Bones Glowing Through Their Skin
25 APRIL 2019
Deep in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest live tiny frogs that are bright orange, toxic, and glow ultraviolet, thanks to revelations from new research.
It's the first known case of an amphibian showing "exceptional" fluorescence right through their skin.
https://www.sciencealert.com/these-cute-little-orange-frogs-have-a-florescent-secret-under-their-skin
------------------------------------
Intense bone fluorescence reveals hidden patterns in pumpkin toadlets
(2019)
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-41959-8
(Fluorescence in pumpkin toadlets. Ethanol-preserved specimens of Brachycephalus pitanga (a–c), B. ephippium (e–g) and Ischnocnema parva (k), and live Ischnocnema parva (i,j) photographed in natural light (a,e,i) and showing fluorescence under UV illumination using two Fluotest Forte UV (λexcitation centred around 365 nm; b,f,j) and a laboratory UV light source (λexcitation = 365 nm) and an emission filter centred around 472 nm and 30 nm wide, thereby eliminating reflectance of all visible light (c,g,k). Note that the absence of fluorescence in I. parva results in a completely dark image (k). Computerized micro-tomography (”CT) reconstructions (c,h,l) show the correspondence between fluorescent patterns and bone structure in B. pitanga (d), B. ephippium (h) and I. parva (l). Photographs taken by L.C. and S.G. (a,b,e,f,i,j) and P.G., M.T. and S.G. (c,g,k).
(Fluorescence distribution within the bone in Brachycephalus ephippium. Photomicrograph of a transverse, non-decalcified section of the dorsal bony plates at 10x (a) and an enlargement of the boxed area at 40x magnification (b). The section is illuminated with UV-A light (λexcitation = 365 nm) and no emission filter was used).
------------------------------------
Did dinosaurs glow in the dark? Scientists suggest photoluminescent skin
3 Mar 2020
https://metro.co.uk/2020/03/03/dinosaurs-glow-dark-12339023/
(Many deep sea creatures release UV light as visible light is so low)
(There are more than 180 species that are known to glow in the dark)
------------------------------------
Did Dinosaurs and Pterosaurs 'Glow'? Extinct Archosaurs and the Capacity for Photoluminescent Visual Displays
2020
http://tetzoo.com/blog/2020/3/2/dinosaurs-pterosaurs-uv-sensitive-visual-displays
(In 2018, Jamie Dunning and colleagues reported the discovery of photoluminescence in puffins).
------------------------------------
Bioluminescence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence
(Flashing of photophores of black dragonfish, Malacosteus niger, showing red fluorescence)
-----------------------------------------------------------
Cranwell's frog looks otherworldly when exposed to blue light and imaged with a special filter. Now, scientists have to figure out why.
https://www.wired.com/story/amphibians-glow/
--------------------------------------------------------
Glowing Amphibians Extremely Common
Feb 28, 2020
https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/glowing-amphibians-extremely-common-67204
A study of the animals using blue light reveals what humans are not able to see with the naked eye.
Dozens of salamanders and other amphibians are biofluorescent under blue light, according to a study published Thursday (February 27) in Scientific Reports. On land, blue light is common after the sun has set, which may explain why amphibians, particularly nocturnal ones, react to it.
Many land animals, such as penguins, some rodents, and some amphibians, are known to fluoresce under ultraviolet light (360–380 nm), but most species known to fluoresce under blue light (440–460 nm) are strictly aquatic animals such as fish and turtles, as that is the wavelength of light that cuts through water the most.
Two biologists from St. Cloud State University, Jennifer Lamb and Matthew Davis, had decided to expose salamanders they were studying to blue light and found that they lit up. To understand how widespread the trait may be, the team was granted access to the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago. Using a flashlight that shone blue light, they analyzed eight salamander families, five frog families, and one family of caecilians, which are limbless amphibians. They found that across the board, all of the animals glowed.
------------------------------------
Why Bioluminescence Evolved to Be Red Light, and Blue
The laws of nature constrict living light to a few hues, which also happen to be quite patriotic
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-bioluminescence-evolved-be-red-light-and-blue-180969435/
------------------------------------------
{The cannabis plant thrives in the Red light spectrum and the Blue light spectrums}.
-------------------------------------------
What is the Best LED Spectrum for Indoor Growing?
April 15, 2019
https://news.californialightworks.com/what-is-the-best-led-spectrum-for-growing/
How the Light Spectrum Affects Plants
When
we talk about the light spectrum, we’re speaking specifically about the
distribution of red, blue, and UVB light. So the first thing to
understand is how each color influences your plants. In the most basic
terms:
Red light promotes flowering. However, it also
encourages vertical plant growth. Too much red at the wrong time will
cause your plants to stretch, which results in lower yields and lanky,
unstable plants.
Blue light is your secret weapon for amping up the concentration of oils and resin.
UVB
light puts your plants on the defensive . . . in a good way. Just as we
humans do, plants actively protect themselves from the sun’s UVB rays.
But instead of sunblock, they produce more trichomes, ultimately
increasing potency, flavor, and fragrance.
Now, let’s talk about when to use which color spectrum.
Clones
If
you’re starting with clones, your first goal is to encourage rooting.
This takes some effort on your plants’ part, so keep the light intensity
low. If you stick to about 25% red and 45% blue and white, your plants
is more likely to focus energy on deepening roots rather than expanding
upward.
-------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------
{Do animals and humans share the same type of evolution process or do humans evolve differently.
We can see how plants and animals can slowly adapt and evolve to their surroundings as well,
and
even viruses can mutate. There is so much confusion to evolution,
de-evolution and mutation that it is often difficult for many experts to
fully understand how this process works.
We can see
how you can breed a white cannabis plant that smell like pine with a
purple cannabis plant that smells like a berry and get a half white and
half purple cannabis plant. You also get the two smells of both of the
white and purple cannabis plant, such as a Pine and Berry smell from the
newly evolved plant that is now a new strain of cannabis. You can get
good genetics and good evolution of a plant and we see how over time
that a species can de-evovle and degenerate to a browned up bunk looking
Mexican type schwag weed, this also goes for humans as well. Then if
you try to cross good cannabis with cannabis that has degenerated, the
offspring of the plant can still be decent but still not as good as the
original parent and strain once the weed has been too browned up. This
does not go for every strain and there are some good strains with Green
and Brown hairs, but most know about the type of brown degenerative
ditch weed that I am talking about}.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Why are higher plants green? Evolution of the higher plant photosynthetic pigment complement
http://www.esalq.usp.br/lepse/imgs/conteudo_thumb/Why-are-higher-plants-green--Evolution-of-the-higher-plant-photosynthetic-pigment-complement-1.pdf
----------------------------------------
Independent evolution of the prochlorophyte and green plant chlorophyll a/b light-harvesting proteins
1996
https://www.pnas.org/content/93/26/15244
----------------------------------------
The Light Spectrum Matters When Growing Cannabis
https://leafist.com/news/growing/the-light-spectrum-matters-when-growing-cannabis
-----------------------------------------
Opinions wanted on green light in flowering room after lights out
Mar 11, 2016
https://www.420magazine.com/community/threads/opinions-wanted-on-green-light-in-flowering-room-after-lights-out.271859/
----------------------------------------
Chromatic adaptation and the evolution of light color sensing in cyanobacteria
https://www.pnas.org/content/107/20/9029
----------------------------------------
All the Colors That Human Vision Neglects
February 7, 2018
To help us survive, our eyes have to make some sacrifices.
https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/02/seeing-red/552473/
---------------------------------------
Evolution of human colour vision
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_colour_vision
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 animals and some amazing facts about their eyes
24 July 2017
https://www.feelgoodcontacts.com/blog/5-animals-and-some-amazing-facts-about-their-eyes
--------------------------------------------------------------
Nocturnal colour vision – not as rare as we might think
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/209/5/781
--------------------------------------------------------------
The Causes and Consequences of Color Vision
02 October 2008
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-008-0088-x
--------------------------------------------------------------
Snakes hear by detection of sound-induced skull vibrations
https://www.frontiersin.org/10.3389/conf.fnbeh.2012.27.00110/event_abstract
--------------------------------------------------
Comparative Skull Osteology of Karsenia koreana (Amphibia, Caudata, Plethodontidae)
2010
https://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/wake/364_Buckley et al 2010 osteology skull Karsenia koreana.pdf
---------------------------------------------
A missing link settles debate over the origin of frogs and salamanders
21-May-2008
The description of an ancient amphibian that millions of years ago swam in quiet pools and caught mayflies on the surrounding land in Texas has set to rest one of the greatest current controversies in vertebrate evolution. The discovery was made by a research team led by scientists at the University of Calgary.
The examination and detailed description of the fossil, Gerobatrachus hottoni (meaning Hotton's elder frog), proves the previously disputed fact that some modern amphibians, frogs and salamanders evolved from one ancient amphibian group called temnospondyls.
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-05/uoc-aml052008.php
--------------------------------------------
Heterochrony and Neotenic Salamanders: Possible Clues for Understanding the Animal Development and Evolution
https://bioone.org/journals/zoological-science/volume-13/issue-6/zsj.13.765/Heterochrony-and-Neotenic-Salamanders--Possible-Clues-for-Understanding-the/10.2108/zsj.13.765.pdf
-------------------------------------------
Quantitative Genetics and Evolution of Head Shape in Plethodon Salamanders
2011
https://www.eeob.iastate.edu/faculty/adams/files/page/files/2011-adams-evolbiol.pdf
---------------------------------------------
Amphibian skull evolution: the developmental and functional context of simplification, bone loss and heterotopy.
2014
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Amphibian-skull-evolution%3A-the-developmental-and-of-Schoch/ee78b11418c3197b068f0abb3111089478b84144
---------------------------------------------
Evolution, Ecology, and Behavior Students and Postdocs
https://sib.illinois.edu/eeb/students
---------------------------------------------
Development of the bony skeleton in the Taiwan salamander, Hynobius formosanusMaki, 1922 (Caudata: Hynobiidae): Heterochronies and reductions
https://www.senckenberg.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/11_vertebrate_zoology_65-1_vassileva_et_al_117-130.pdf
---------------------------------------------
Cranial biomechanics in basal urodeles: the Siberian salamander (Salamandrella keyserlingii) and its evolutionary and developmental implications
2017
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-10553-1
---------------------------------------------
Osteological Variation among Extreme Morphological Forms in the Mexican Salamander Genus Chiropterotriton (Amphibia: Plethodontidae): Morphological Evolution And Homoplasy
June 10, 2015
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0127248
---------------------------------------------
Evolution of skull shape in the family Salamandridae (Amphibia: Caudata)
14 December 2017
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/joa.12759
----------------------------------------------
The skull and jaw musculature as guides to the ancestry of salamanders
2008
https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/68/1/1/2658646?redirectedFrom=fulltext
----------------------------------------------
Skull Development in Two Plethodontid Salamanders (Genus Desmognathus) with Different Life Histories
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-4255-1_12
----------------------------------------------
Skull Growth in Cannibalistic Tiger Salamanders, Ambystoma tigrinum
1993
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3671609?seq=1
----------------------------------------------
Loading mechanics of the femur in tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) during terrestrial locomotion
2011
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/214/15/2603
----------------------------------------------
New species of earliest-known salamanders found in China
March 25, 2003
https://www.uchicagomedicine.org/forefront/news/new-species-of-earliest-known-salamanders-found-in-china
-----------------------------------------------
How the World's Largest Salamander Feed?
04/2015
https://www.uab.cat/web?cid=1096481466574&pagename=UABDivulga%2FPage%2FTemplatePageDetallArticleInvestigar¶m1=1345683918994
----------------------------------------------
The early formation of the skull in extant and Paleozoic amphibians
2002
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/early-formation-of-the-skull-in-extant-and-paleozoic-amphibians/BB69149CBB05835FB42D9A5AA7DD1005
-----------------------------------------------
Morphological evolution and modularity of the caecilian skull
22 January 2019
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-018-1342-7
----------------------------------------------------
Glowing Salamanders Shine Light on Evolution
https://newsroom.carleton.ca/story/glowing-salamanders/
-----------------------------------------------------
Extraordinary Salamander Can Grow New Limbs and Has Longest Genome Ever Sequenced
1/25/18
https://www.newsweek.com/axolotls-masters-regeneration-have-insanely-long-genomes-791052
-----------------------------------------------
From Land to Water: the Origin of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises
16 April 2009
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0135-2
-----------------------------------------------
Learn About Dolphin Evolution
https://dolphin-academy.com/learn/evolution
-----------------------------------------------
First Fossil Platanistid Dolphin Skull at CMM
http://www.calvertmarinemuseum.com/DocumentCenter/View/702/Volume-21-Number-1-March-2006?bidId=
------------------------------------------------
From Land to Water: the Origin of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises
2009
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12052-009-0135-2
---------------------------------------------------
THE EVOLUTION OF ARCTIC MARINE MAMMALS
https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1890/06-0624.1
---------------------------------------------------
Evolution of Marine Mammals: Back to the Sea After 300 Million Years
2007
https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ar.20545
---------------------------------------------------
How did swimming behavior evolve in seals, sea lions and walruses?
May 29, 2016
https://www.burkemuseum.org/news/how-did-swimming-behavior-evolve-seals-sea-lions-and-walruses
---------------------------------------------------
The Origin and Evolutionary Biology of Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses
2018
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010009
---------------------------------------------------
A new tuskless walrus from the Miocene of Orange County, California, with comments on the diversity and taxonomy of odobenids
2018
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328251879_A_new_tuskless_walrus_from_the_Miocene_of_Orange_County_California_with_comments_on_the_diversity_and_taxonomy_of_odobenids
---------------------------------------------------
Ancient walrus made do without tusks
2015
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ancient-walrus-made-do-without-tusks/
---------------------------------------------------
Ancient DNA reveals the chronology of walrus ivory trade from Norse Greenland
2018
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6111184/
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Arctic fossil shows how seals evolved
April 2009
https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2009/04/23/2550437.htm
---------------------------------------------------
Walking Seal Called Missing Link in Evolution
2009
https://www.livescience.com/7715-walking-seal-called-missing-link-evolution.html
---------------------------------------------------
Graduate student makes major discovery about seal evolution
February 19, 2014
https://phys.org/news/2014-02-student-major-discovery-evolution.html
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Scientists are studying sea lion brains to try to figure out how our own got to be so big
https://qz.com/672594/scientists-are-studying-sea-lion-brains-to-try-to-figure-out-how-our-own-got-to-be-so-big/
---------------------------------------------------
Scientists establish first map of the sea lion brain
Apr. 27, 2016
https://news.vanderbilt.edu/2016/04/27/scientists-establish-first-map-of-the-sea-lion-brain/
---------------------------------------------------
Skull allometry and sexual dimorphism in the ontogeny of the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina)
2013
https://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/cjz-2013-0106#.XoRBtHJOlPY
---------------------------------------------------
Written in Bone: was the fossil Allodesmus a seal or sea lion?
https://experiment.com/projects/written-in-bone-was-the-fossil-allodesmus-a-seal-or-sea-lion
---------------------------------------------------
Fossil Focus: Seals, sea lions and walruses
https://www.palaeontologyonline.com/articles/2015/fossil-focus-seals-sea-lions-walruses/?doing_wp_cron=1585725777.9788990020751953125000
----------------------------------------------------
Tracing early stages of species differentiation: Ecological, morphological and genetic divergence of GalĂĄpagos sea lion populations
2008
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2408593/
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Flippers or Feet? An Extinct Mammal May Have Been Replaced By Today's Sea Cows
https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/marine-mammals/flippers-or-feet-extinct-mammal-may-have-been-replaced-todays-sea-cows
----------------------------------------------
How Does a Fish Get Its Shape? Students Explore Smithsonian National Fish Collection to Find Answers
February 04, 2019
https://biology.ucdavis.edu/news/how-does-fish-get-its-shape-students-explore-smithsonian-national-fish-collection-find-answers
-----------------------------------
World’s oldest fish shows how ancient skull evolved
April 18, 2019
https://knowridge.com/2019/04/worlds-oldest-fish-shows-how-ancient-skull-evolved/
-----------------------------------
Neurocranial anatomy of an enigmatic Early Devonian fish sheds light on early osteichthyan evolution
May 29, 2018
https://elifesciences.org/articles/34349
-----------------------------------
This tiny fish could be your ancestor, say scientists
January 13, 2015
A 415-million-year-old tiny fish skull unearthed in Siberia could revise our understanding of the origins of all jawed vertebrates.
https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2015/0113/This-tiny-fish-could-be-your-ancestor-say-scientists
-----------------------------------
Jawless fish brains more similar to ours than previously thought
February 16, 2016
http://www.geologypage.com/2016/02/jawless-fish-brains-more-similar-to-ours-than-previously-thought.html
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Ancient fish fossil discovered in Canada is a 'missing link' in evolution of hand bones
18 March 2020
https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2020-03-19/ancient-fish-had-finger-bones-like-a-human/12063308
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Ancient 4-limbed fish reveals origin of human hand
March 27, 2020
https://earthsky.org/earth/elpistostege-ancient-4limbed-fish-fin-origin-human-hand
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Tiktaalik fossils reveal how fish evolved into four-legged land animals
Jan 2014
A fish called Tiktaalik that lived 375m years ago already had strong hind limbs – even though it still lived in water
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jan/13/tiktaalik-fossil-fish-four-legged-land-animal
----------------------------------------------------
Antarctic fish skull structure reveals patterns of evolution in an extreme environment
January 24, 2017
https://cos.northeastern.edu/news/antarctic-fish-skull-structure-reveals-patterns-evolution-extreme-environment/
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Fish to Amphibian Transition
Copyright 1997 G.R.Morton. This may be freely distributed as long as no change is made to the text and no charge is made.
https://chem.tufts.edu/science/evolution/fish-amphibian-transition.htm
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The evolution of cranial design, diet, and feeding mechanisms in batoid fishes
July 2007
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/47/1/70/635524
--------------------------------------------------------
Where we split from sharks: common ancestor comes into focus
June 12, 2012
https://www.uchicagomedicine.org/forefront/news/where-we-split-from-sharks-common-ancestor-comes-into-focus
--------------------------------------------------------
Body plan convergence in the evolution of skates and rays (Chondrichthyes: Batoidea)
April 2012
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51973194_Body_plan_convergence_in_the_evolution_of_skates_and_rays_Chondrichthyes_Batoidea
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How the Devil Ray Got Its Horns: The Evolution and Development of Cephalic Lobes in Myliobatid Stingrays (Batoidea: Myliobatidae)
13 November 2018
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2018.00181/full
--------------------------------------------------------
Catfish use complex coordination to catch prey
April 16, 2019
Using a powerful X-ray imaging system, Brown University scientists found that catfish move joints throughout their head in a concerted manner to suck in their prey.
https://www.brown.edu/news/2019-04-16/catfish
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Researchers solve mystery of deep-sea fish with tubular eyes and transparent head
February 23, 2009
https://www.mbari.org/barreleye-fish-with-tubular-eyes-and-transparent-head/
--------------------------------------------------
Thyroid hormone & fish jaw protrusion
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/418483v1.full.pdf
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Birth of Jaws: Tiny Fish May Be Ancient Ancestor
January 12, 2015
https://www.livescience.com/49417-jawed-vertebrates-common-ancestor.html
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The Improbable—but True—Evolutionary Tale of Flatfishes
May 7, 2014
For Charles Darwin, flatfish like flounder were a vexing puzzle—how did they evolve into such asymmetrical freaks? But recently, scientists using clever experiments and advanced imaging have shown just how their curious anatomies came about.
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/flatfish-evolution/
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Blind fish find food thanks to their twisted heads
May 25, 2017
https://newatlas.com/blind-mexican-cavefish-asymmetrical-head/49695/
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Flinders Uni study sheds light on why ancient coelacanth fish’s skull is 100 times bigger than its brain
April 18, 2019
There’s not much going on between the gills of this fish that’s outlived the dinosaurs — its brain cavity is 100 times bigger than the brain itself. Now a Flinders University study has found out why.
https://www.news.com.au/national/south-australia/flinders-uni-study-sheds-light-on-why-ancient-coelacanth-fishs-skull-is-100-times-bigger-than-its-brain/news-story/3975b685b032a9e1434e8155056195f3
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It’s less than 2cm long, but this 400 million year old fossil fish changes our view of vertebrate evolution
May 29, 2018
https://theconversation.com/its-less-than-2cm-long-but-this-400-million-year-old-fossil-fish-changes-our-view-of-vertebrate-evolution-96419
Published today, our new paper describes a spectacular 400 million-year-old 3D-preserved fossil fish, Ligulalepis.
The 3D anatomy of the fossilised Ligulalepis skull reveals previously unknown details of the pattern of dermal skull bones, the shape of the brain cavity, and other soft tissue features (such as nerves and blood vessels) in this species.
Why are we so excited about discovering the structure of an ancient fish skull? Because Ligulalepis sits in a very important position in the vertebrate evolutionary tree.
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Evolution of Levers and Linkages in the Feeding Mechanisms of Fishes
November 2004
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/44/5/378/799576
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Neurocranium shape variation of piranhas and pacus (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae) in association with ecology and phylogeny
2018
http://www.anthonyherrel.fr/publications/Boyle%20&%20Herrel%202018%20Biol%20J%20Linn%20Soc.pdf
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Piranhas and plant-eating kin replace half their teeth at once
December 4, 2019
This tooth-swapping strategy probably helps keep the fishes’ chompers sharp
https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/piranhas-and-plant-eating-kin-replace-half-their-teeth-once
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Piranhas and their plant-eating relatives, pacus, replace rows of teeth all at once
October 24, 2019
Not losing teeth individually might help distribute wear and tear from the fishes’ diets more evenly
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/piranhas-plant-eating-relatives-pacus-replace-rows-teeth-all-at-once
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A Piranha-like Pycnodontiform Fish from the Late Jurassic
2018
https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdfExtended/S0960-9822(18)31208-9
---------------------------------------------------------------
A unique Cretaceous–Paleogene lineage of piranha-jawed pycnodont fishes
(2017)
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-06792-x
---------------------------------------------------------------
Mega-Bites: Extreme jaw forces of living and extinct piranhas (Serrasalmidae)
2012
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep01009
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Evolution and development of the fish jaw skeleton.
2019
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30378758
--------------------------------------------------
Ancient Shark Fossil Provides Insight into Jaw Evolution in Vertebrates
https://blog.everythingdinosaur.co.uk/blog/_archives/2014/04/20/ancient-shark-fossil-provides-insight-into-jaw-evolution-in-vertebrates.html
-----------------------------------------------
Evolution of fish
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_fish
-----------------------------------------------
Fossils of first bird beak discovered, a key clue in how birds evolved from dinosaurs
2018
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/05/03/fossils-first-bird-beak-dinosaurs/576762002/
-----------------------------------------------
Evolution and taxonomy of Ice Age deer
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/our-work/origins-evolution-and-futures/evolution-taxonomy-ice-age-deer.html
This project aims to reconstruct the relationships between deer populations that lived in Europe between 2.5 million years ago and the present. It is improving our understanding of current global diversity and the distribution of deer.
Sharp climatic oscillations during the ice ages led to deer evolving and differentiating very rapidly, producing a high number of species and subspecies.
Due to their dynamic evolution and abundance as fossils, deer have been the focus of intense research. There is no agreement, however, on the validity of individual species and subspecies and their inter-relationships.
---------------------------------------------------
Extinct deer-like creature sheds light on biodiversity
https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/extinct-deer-like-creature-sheds-light-on-biodiversity/
----------------------------------------------------
Bony labyrinth morphology clarifies the origin and evolution of deer
13 October 2017
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-12848-9
----------------------------------------------------
Evolution of ruminant headgear: a review
2011
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3151718/
----------------------------------------------------
The Case of the Irish Elk
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/artio/irishelk.html
----------------------------------------------------
The giant elk mystery
2003
https://www.irishtimes.com/news/the-giant-elk-mystery-1.375699
----------------------------------------------------
Skeleton of the giant deer Megaloceros giganteus giganteus (Blumenbach, 1803) (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from the Irtysh Region near Pavlodar
08 October 2014
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0031030114050104
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Antlers Are Miraculous Face Organs That Could Benefit Human Health
June 12, 2017
There’s so much more to deer antlers than fighting and impressing the ladies
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/antlers-are-miraculous-face-organs-could-benefit-human-health-180963635/
----------------------------------------------------
This Strange Buck Was a Throwback to Extinct Whitetail Ancestors
June 12, 2019
https://www.qdma.com/this-strange-buck-was-a-throwback-to-extinct-whitetail-ancestors/
----------------------------------------------------
Morphometrical relationships between South-east Asian deer (Cervidae, tribe Cervini): evolutionary and biogeographic implications
June 2004
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-zoology/article/morphometrical-relationships-between-southeast-asian-deer-cervidae-tribe-cervini-evolutionary-and-biogeographic-implications/DE1A83CD6FAB0F527A81AFCEB8A69E16
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VARIATION IN SKULL MORPHOLOGY OF ROE DEER (CAPREOLUS CAPREOLUS) IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE
https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/79/1/131/841874
----------------------------------------------------
Vampire Deer: Why Some Deer Have Fangs
https://untamedscience.com/biodiversity/vampire-deer/
The (Evolutionary) Road Less Travelled
Why don’t larger deer come equipped with fangs? The answer lies in the distant past. When deer were first evolving, they were tiny creatures that had both fangs and antlers; it was actually their default mode. In fact, they looked pretty much like the fanged deer of today. These guys haven’t changed much through the course of history.
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Why Do Deer Lose Their Antlers?
https://sciencing.com/do-deer-lose-antlers-5154554.html
----------------------------------------------------
Most weird deer antlers are not caused by genetics
2018
Most often it's injury that causes weird deer antlers. These injuries can range from leg wounds to tears in the antler velvet.
https://www.grandviewoutdoors.com/big-game-hunting/deer/most-weird-deer-antlers-are-not-caused-by-genetics
----------------------------------------------------
Frontal sinuses and head-butting in goats: a finite element analysis
2008
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/211/19/3085
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The Evolutionary Significance of Mountain Sheep Horns
Dec, 1966
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2406590?origin=crossref&seq=1
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The Evolution of Horn-Like Organs
1965
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4533157?seq=1
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Adaptation to milk drinking and evolution oflactase persistence in pastoralist goat herdersin central-northern Chile
June 2014
https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1458425/3/NA_MONTALVA_RIVERA.pdf
-----------------------------------------------------------
Here’s why goats have those freaky eyes
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2015/08/10/heres-why-goats-have-those-freaky-eyes/
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Horses, goats, and poison ivy - what they have to do with each other!
Some goats LOVE TO EAT POISON IVY. There are also many goat loaning services that will deliver goats to you for brush clearing. YES, that's a real business. Why didn't I think of that!? They will eat the leaves, but not the roots, so it’s likely that the leaves will grow back… but - over time the plant will not be able to survive if it’s continually eaten.
https://www.proequinegrooms.com/tips/barn-management/horses-goats-and-poison-ivy-all-of-the-details
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Distinctive features of Ovis aries and Capra hircus petrosal parts of temporal bone: Applications of the features to the distinction of some other Caprinae (Capra ibex, Rupicapra rupicapra)
https://journals.openedition.org/paleo/2862
----------------------------------------------------
Evolution of the horse
https://www.britannica.com/animal/horse/Evolution-of-the-horse
----------------------------------------------------
Evolution of the horse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse
-----------------------------------------
ONTOGENY AND PHYLOGENY IN HORSE SKULL EVOLUTION
1983
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1984.tb00254.x
-----------------------------------------
Evolution in the Horse's Skull
03 October 1942
https://www.nature.com/articles/150402a0
-----------------------------------------
Shape variation and modularity of skull and teeth in domesticated horses and wild equids
2018
https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-018-0258-9
-----------------------------------------
Allometry and reorganization in horse skull proportions
1983
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17811522
-----------------------------------------
Horse Evolution Over 55 Million Years
The Evolution of the Horse's Foot
https://chem.tufts.edu/science/evolution/HorseEvolution.htm
-----------------------------------------
Horses, the Fossil Record, and Evolution
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-0931-4_3
----------------------------------------
Ideas about fossil horses undergo evolution in thinking
August 1, 2005
https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/ideas-about-fossil-horses-undergo-evolution-in-thinking/
-----------------------------------------
Why the long face? Comparative shape analysis of miniature, pony, and other horse skulls reveals changes in ontogenetic growth
2019
https://peerj.com/articles/7678/
-----------------------------------------
Evolution of Earliest Horses Driven by Climate Change
2012
https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=123252
-----------------------------------------
The Giant Camels of the Prehistoric High Arctic
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/phenomena/2013/03/05/the-giant-camels-of-the-prehistoric-high-arctic/
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Ancient Whales' Hearing Was Like Hippos And Camels, Fossils Show
Jun 8, 2017
https://www.forbes.com/sites/grrlscientist/2017/06/08/ancient-whales-hearing-was-like-their-land-based-relatives-fossils-show/#3989b655131a
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Complete camel skeleton unearthed in Austria
2015
https://phys.org/news/2015-04-camel-skeleton-unearthed-austria.html
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Late Pleistocene horse and camel hunting at the southern margin of the ice-free corridor: Reassessing the age of Wally’s Beach, Canada
April 7, 2015
https://www.pnas.org/content/112/14/4263
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The old and new faces of morphology: the legacy of D'Arcy Thompson's ‘theory of transformations' and ‘laws of growth'
2017
https://dev.biologists.org/content/144/23/4284.figures-only
------------------------------------------
Carnivora Skull Shape Depends on More Than Just Diet
Feb 7, 2018
https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/news-posts/carnivora-skull-shape-depends-on-more-than-just-diet
------------------------------------------
Functional Relationship between Skull Form and Feeding Mechanics in Sphenodon, and Implications for Diapsid Skull Development
2011
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0029804
------------------------------------------
Evolutionary and biogeographical implications of variation in skull morphology of raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides, Mammalia: Carnivora)
2015
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bij.12629
-----------------------------------------
Whales may have evolved from raccoon-sized creature
2007
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-whales-fossil/whales-may-have-evolved-from-raccoon-sized-creature-idUSN1963835720071220
----------------------------------------------------
SKULLS of the MAMMALS in TASMANIA
https://www.bien.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Skulls-of-Tasmania-Rainbird.pdf
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Functional Evolution of the Feeding System in Rodents
2012
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3338682/
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A phylogenomic rodent tree reveals the repeated evolution of masseter architectures
08 May 2019
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2019.0672
----------------------------------------------------
Diet, bite force and skull morphology in the generalist rodent morphotype
2016
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jeb.12937
----------------------------------------------------
Rodent of unusual size discovered
2008
https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2008.441
----------------------------------------------------
Getting a head in hard soils: Convergent skull evolution and divergent allometric patterns explain shape variation in a highly diverse genus of pocket gophers (Thomomys)
2016
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-016-0782-1
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A phylogenetic test of adaptation to deserts and aridity in skull and dental morphology across rodents
2018
https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/99/5/1197/5069531
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Life in Burrows Channelled the Morphological Evolution of the Skull in Rodents: the Case of African Mole-Rats (Bathyergidae, Rodentia)
19 August 2015
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10914-015-9305-x
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Scientists ‘replay’ evolution with mouse teeth
July 31st, 2014
How teeth change
Evans says the evolution of rodents shown in the experiment also applies to carnivorous animals. He examined how tooth complexity changed in these mammal groups.
“Amazingly, we found that the features that we could control in mice vary in the same way in carnivorous mammals like the lion, wolf, and bear—the same rules apply to cats and mice,” he says.
The next phase of research will investigate other mechanisms that influence tooth development, and apply these results to more accurately reconstruct the history of mammals.
https://www.futurity.org/mice-teeth-evolution-740292/
----------------------------------------------------
Research shows rats have best bite of rodent world
April 27, 2012
https://phys.org/news/2012-04-rats-rodent-world.html
----------------------------------------------------
Do Mice Get Cavities? All About Mammal Teeth
2017
https://www.adirondackalmanack.com/2017/05/mammal-teeth.html
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Is Evolution of Blind Mole Rats Determined by Climate Oscillations?
January 9, 2012
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0030043
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Mammals First Evolved Big Brains for Better Sense of Smell
May 19, 2011
http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/2011/05/mammals-first-evolved-big-brains-for-better-sense-of-smell/
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Her Incredible Sense Of Smell Is Helping Scientists Find New Ways To Diagnose Disease
March 23, 2020
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/03/23/820274501/her-incredible-sense-of-smell-is-helping-scientists-find-new-ways-to-diagnose-di?utm_source=pocket-newtab
--------------------------------------------------
Where Pain Lives
Fixing chronic back pain is possible only when patients understand how much it is produced by the brain, not the spine.
https://getpocket.com/explore/item/where-pain-lives?utm_source=pocket-newtab
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This Wild Pig Has Fangs That Can Pierce Its Own Skull
Feb 3, 2017
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2D-7zgw1Lq0
-------------------------------
Similar rates of morphological evolution in domesticated and wild pigs and dogs
2018
https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-018-0265-x
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Review: Your Inner Reptile
April 19, 2014
(Mammals have three tiny bones in their middle ear, though they often are not preserved in the fossil record. Reptiles—like the “non-mammalian amniote” in the drawing—have only one ear bone but have jaws made of multiple bones. Evolutionists claim that two jaw bones in reptiles got smaller over millions of years, migrated to the ear, and evolved in the precisely connected trio of bones found in mammalian ears. This belief is based on an evolutionary desire to “connect the dots” on the tree of life, as reptiles with variations in their jaws are still reptiles, not transitional forms. Image: Philcha, Wikipedia).
https://answersingenesis.org/reviews/tv/review-your-inner-reptile/
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Evolutionary morphology of the rabbit skull
2016
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5036099/
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Earliest Rabbit Fossil Found, Suggests Modern Mammal Group Emerged As Dinosaurs Faced Extinction
Feb 5, 2006
https://www.amnh.org/research/science-news/2006/earliest-rabbit-fossil-found-suggests-modern-mammal-group-emerged-as-dinosaurs-faced-extinction
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Rabbit-proof hoof: Ungulates suppressed lagomorph evolution
https://worldlagomorphsociety.org//News/Details/c7a8a957-e233-4ce3-825d-daef59626aae
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Giant Rabbit Fossil Found: Biggest Bunny Was "Roly-Poly"
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/3/110323-giant-rabbit-minorca-biggest-bunny-science-nuralagus-rex-largest/
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Resurrecting Darwin’s ‘Lop-eared’ Rabbits
August 22, 2016
http://thescienceexplorer.com/nature/resurrecting-darwin-s-lop-eared-rabbits
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Cranial Specialization and Locomotor Habit in the Lagomorpha1
1989
https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/29/1/303/184455
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Changes in brain architecture are consistent with altered fear processing in domestic rabbits
https://www.pnas.org/content/115/28/7380
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Armadillo and rabbit genes reveal how pregnancy evolved
09 January 2018
Inflammation engulfs a fetus in its first days, but small changes to that attack enables the embryo to implant in the uterus.
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-00341-w
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Rodent-like Mammal Shakes the Evolutionary Tree
2014
The lucky discovery of a 5-inch long skull belonging to an extinct 20-pound Mesozoic groundhog-like animal threatens to rewrite the evolutionary history of mammals. Dubbed Vintana sertichi (because “vintana” is Malagasy for “lucky”), the skull (minus its lower jaw) was found fossilized in Madagascar with lots of fish in a large block of sandstone dated late in the “age of dinosaurs.” Believed by evolutionists to have inhabited a large southern land mass known as Gondwana 66 million years ago, it is the first good representative of the gondwanatherians, previously known only from isolated teeth and jaw fragments.
https://answersingenesis.org/mammals/rodent-like-mammal-shakes-the-evolutionary-tree/
----------------------------------------------------
Koalas aren’t primates, but they move like monkeys in trees
Climbing high in tree branches, the iconic marsupial is Australia’s answer to primates
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/koalas-are-not-primates-but-they-move-like-monkeys-trees
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A Creepy Virus is forcing koalas to evolve before our eyes
10.10.2019
There's an invader in their DNA.
https://www.inverse.com/article/59977-koala-retrovirus-is-forcing-it-to-evolve
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Why Are There So Many Marsupials in Australia?
March 03, 2019
https://www.livescience.com/64897-why-marsupials-in-australia.html
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Cranial anatomy of Oligo-Miocene koalas(Diprotodontia: Phascolarctidae): stages in theevolution of an extreme leaf-eating specialization
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1671/039.029.0412
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Bipedalism left its mark on human skull: Kangaroos and upright rodents show same signs
https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/bipedalism-left-its-mark-human-skull-kangaroos-and-upright-rodents-show-same-signs-0
----------------------------------------------------
Oldest cingulate skulls provide congruence between morphological and molecular scenarios of armadillo evolution
02 February 2011
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2010.2443
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Beyond the carapace: skull shape variation and morphological systematics of long-nosed armadillos (genus Dasypus)
August 15, 2017
https://peerj.com/articles/3650/
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Taxonomic revision of the long-nosed armadillos, Genus Dasypus Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalia, Cingulata)
April 6, 2018
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0195084
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Evolution of the axial skeleton in armadillos (Mammalia, Dasypodidae)
July 2010
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1616504709000457
----------------------------------------------------------------------
The masticatory apparatus of the armadillo Eutatus (Mammalia, Cingulata) and some allied genera: paleobiology and evolution
1998
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/masticatory-apparatus-of-the-armadillo-eutatus-mammalia-cingulata-and-some-allied-genera-paleobiology-and-evolution/AC797B4A88AE0B26FE9CCE1A45BD3184
----------------------------------------------------------------------
The Glyptodon Was A Prehistoric Armadillo So Big That Early Humans Used Its Shells For Shelters
November 19, 2018
https://allthatsinteresting.com/glyptodon
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A new fairy armadillo (Cingulata, Chlamyphorinae) from the upper Miocene of Argentina: first fossil record of the most enigmatic Xenarthra
2019
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2019.1716778
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Evolution of post-weaning skull ontogeny in New World opossums (Didelphidae)
25 June 2018
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13127-018-0369-3
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Ancient origins of modern opossum revealed
December 17, 2009
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091215202320.htm
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Cranial Anatomy of the Earliest Marsupials and the Origin of Opossums
December 16, 2009
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0008278
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The Opossum genome reveals further evidence for regulatory evolution in mammalian diversification
2007
https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-2007-8-8-223
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CRANIOFACIAL HETEROCHRONY AND SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THE SHORT-TAILED OPOSSUM (MONODELPHIS DOMESTICA)
https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-pdf/77/4/992/2768789/77-4-992.pdf
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The evolution of active vibrissal sensing in mammals: evidence from vibrissal musculature and function in the marsupial opossum Monodelphis domestica
2013
https://jeb.biologists.org/content/216/18/3483
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Zoologger: The pint-sized sabre-toothed opossum
25 July 2013
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23933-zoologger-the-pint-sized-sabre-toothed-opossum/
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Evolution of the Genotype-to-Phenotype Map and the Cost of Pleiotropy in Mammals
2016
https://www.genetics.org/content/204/4/1601
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In the developing ears of opossums, echoes of evolutionary history
February 22, 2017
https://www.igb.illinois.edu/article/developing-ears-opossums-echoes-evolutionary-history
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What your earwax says about your ancestry
February 24, 2014
https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/gory-details/what-your-earwax-says-about-your-ancestry
-------------------------------
Digging For Gold: Study Says Your Race Determines Your Earwax Scent
2014
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/03/20/283101999/digging-for-gold-study-says-your-race-determines-your-earwax-scent
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Ears: Do Their Design, Size and Shape Matter?
November 19, 2015
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ears-do-their-design-size-and-shape-matter/
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The 7 Types of Earlobes and the Secrets They Reveal About Your Personailty
20 February 2019
https://www.cosmopolitan.in/life/features/a16961/7-types-earlobes-and-secrets-they-reveal-about-your-personailty
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Genetics of Earlobes
2021
https://www.news-medical.net/health/Genetics-of-Earlobes.aspx
Similar to the human eyes, nose, and lips, the earlobes also have unique features. Although the human ears appear similar, minor structural differences make each ear different from the other.
The primary form of the gene that determines the shape of the earlobe is known as an allele. An allele is a gene that is found at a specific position on a chromosome. It has been established that all genes in our body have two copies, one from each parent.
Types of earlobes
An earlobe is made up of connective tissues combined with a mixture of areola tissues and fat cells. Earlobes have a good blood supply, which helps in keeping them warm and maintaining balance. There are two primary types of earlobes found in humans, which include free earlobes and attached earlobes.
Free earlobes
Free earlobes are the most common form of ear lobes in humans. This type of earlobe is often large and hangs below the point of attachment to the head. This happens due to the influence of a dominant allele. If the parents' genes express the dominant allele, the child will be born with free earlobes.
In most cases, the allele is regnant to the free lobes compared to attached lobes. The free earlobe parents can also give birth to an attached earlobe child, depending on the allele gene's reaction. If parents with free earlobes give birth to a baby with attached earlobes, both of them had both a copy of the dominant and recessive allele.
Attached earlobes
Attached earlobes are not rare but are also not commonly found. Earlobes of such type are small in size and are attached directly to the side of the head. This kind of lobe's structural formation is due to the absence of the dominant allele in the chromosomes. The recessive allele is expressed to form an attached earlobe. Parents with attached earlobes will not necessarily give birth only to children with attached earlobes.
Traits are the major factors that result from chromosome pairs, which determine one’s overall physical appearance. When alleles combine, some exert a ‘stronger’ influence as compared to others. The stronger allele is responsible for the dominant traits.
If the dominant allele fails to show its presence, the recessive allele will be expressed. These are known as recessive traits.
Although the traits vary, the size of the earlobes for both the traits remains the same. An average man’s ear measures about 6 centimeters (cm), while for a woman, it is about 5 cm, in which the earlobe size measures about 2 cm.
Genetic diseases and earlobes
Genetic conditions play an important role in the birth of a human being. People born with abnormal growth of organs are considered to be affected by the traits before their birth.
Birth disorders may be minor or severe and may occur at any stage during pregnancy. Most disorders affect the baby while in the womb, before the formation of the organs; however, not all genetic defects are caused by the parents' transfer of genes. In many cases, the baby may be born with genetic disorders that the parent’s gene does not contain. Some defects are considered to be harmless, while some may require prolonged medical treatment.
The major conditions that cause irregular or abnormal growth and can subsequently affect the appearance of the earlobes include Down's syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS).
Down’s syndrome
Down’s syndrome is a condition caused by the presence of an extra chromosome. Generally, a person has 46 chromosomes; however, people with Down’s syndrome have 47 chromosomes. The extra chromosome may influence the growth and development of the body.
People with this syndrome tend to have large ears, a small neck, and a flat face. Down’s syndrome cannot be cured, but the affected person can grow healthily without any trouble.
Turner syndrome
Only females are affected by Turner syndrome, which is a rare condition in which there is a lack of one or part of the second X chromosome. It is assumed that this chromosomal abnormality occurs due to an error in the parent’s reproductive cell. A person with this syndrome will have abnormal ears, eyes, skeletal structure, and even kidney abnormalities.
BWS
BWS is described as the modification that occurs in the genes of chromosome 11. BWS is an excessive growth disorder indicated by large body parts, enlarged tongue, earlobe creases, etc.
The earlobe crease is a wrinkle in the earlobe, which occurs due to the trait that was passed genetically by the family. The wrinkle is created when the flow of blood is decreased in the ear. Currently, there is no method of treatment identified to cure ear creases.
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Ear lobe crease: a marker of coronary artery disease?
2015
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4697048/
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Earlobe Type, Race, and Age: Effects on Earlobe Creasing
August 1983
https://agsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1983.tb05121.x
Abstract
There has been much discussion of the utility and validity of the earlobe crease as a warning sign of cardiovascular disease. The authors postulated that the mixed findings were due to the neglect of three variables: age, race, and earlobe shape. Age and earlobe shape were studied in 324 healthy adult subjects from three racial groups: southwestern Alaskan Eskimos (70), Navajos (167), and whites (87). It was found that creases develop with age in healthy adults, that creasing is related to earlobe shape, that the age of onset of creasing varies according to race, and that the frequencies of occurrence of different earlobe shapes differ by race. Future studies of earlobe creases should therefore include the variables of age, race, and earlobe shape.
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Reevaluation of the earlobe types in Koreans
2018
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0018442X18300611
Abstract
The
shape of the earlobes has a variety of genetic significance. This study
analyzed the frequencies of the earlobe shapes in the Korean
population. Data were collected on randomly selected 500 males and 500
females in Daegu Metropolitan City, with all participant ages being in
their twenties. Obtuse angled earlobes accounted for 41.2% of the
earlobes observed, while acute angled earlobes prevalence was calculated
at 38.8% and right angled earlobe was 20.0% of the total (sexes
combined). In men, the acute angled earlobe was the most frequent type
(43.0%), while the obtuse angled earlobe was the most frequent type in
females (45.2%). These differences were statistically significant
(p = 0.015). Overall, attached type earlobe (61.2%) was more frequent
than free type earlobe. The attached type earlobe was more common in
both sex groups (57.0% in male and 65.4% in female), and the proportion
was significantly higher for females (p = 0.006). In conclusion, the
findings in this study suggest that the attached earlobe type is the
most common among Koreans, and the proportion of earlobe types among
males and females is significantly different. Further studies are needed
to understand the genetic background of earlobe types among Koreans.
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What race has attached earlobes?
April 14, 2021
https://answerstoall.com/technology/what-race-has-attached-earlobes/
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Connected Earlobes?
https://www.stormfront.org/forum/t526780/
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Attached earlobe: The myth
https://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mythearlobe.html
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Paleogene Xenarthra and the evolution of South American mammals
Cranial anatomy of Oligo-Miocene koalas(Diprotodontia: Phascolarctidae): stages in the evolution of an extreme leaf-eating specialization
02 Aug 2010
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1671/039.029.0412
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Paleontological and developmental evidence resolve the homology and dual embryonic origin of a mammalian skull bone, the interparietal
2012
https://www.pnas.org/content/109/35/14075
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Baby Reptile Fossils in Arizona Fill Gap in Evolution of Mammal Childbirth
sep 5, 2018
https://www.azpm.org/s/59797-baby-reptile-fossils-in-arizona-fill-gap-in-evolution-of-mammal-childbirth/
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Rostro-dorsal and rostro-lateral skull morphologic variability in three age-groups of the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) (Linnaeus, 1758): implications of certain orbital parameters — angular geometric approach
https://journals.viamedica.pl/folia_morphologica/article/download/FM.a2016.0022/36844
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Deformed Skull Morphology Is Caused by the Combined Effects of the Maldevelopment of Calvarias, Cranial Base and Brain in FGFR2-P253R Mice Mimicking Human Apert Syndrome
2017
https://www.ijbs.com/v13p0032.htm
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The giant fossil mammals that inspired Charles Darwin's theory of evolution
9 April 2018
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2018/april/giant-fossil-mammals-inspired-charles-darwin-theory-evolution.html
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Bull-Size Rodent Discovered—Biggest Yet
The prehistoric 'rat' had huge teeth, a new study says, and the animal likely competed with saber-toothed cats and giant, flightless, meat-eating birds.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2008/01/south-america-large-rodent-discovery-animals/
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Andrewsarchus, "Superb Skull of a Gigantic Beast"
Jul 3, 2013
https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/andrewsarchus
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When Animals Shrink to Minature Form
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20151021-when-animals-shrink-to-miniature-form
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Dwarfism in insular sloths: biogeography, selection, and evolutionary rate
JUNE 2002
http://www.paxtag.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Anderson-2002.-Dwarfism-In-Insular-Sloths-biogeography-selection-and-evolutionary-rate.pdf
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The hidden teeth of sloths: evolutionary vestiges and the development of a simplified dentition
2016
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep27763
------------------------------------------
Darwin's giant ground sloth skull pieced together and scanned for the first time
23 November 2018
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2018/november/darwins-giant-ground-sloth-skull-pieced-together-and-scanned.html
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Patterns of Morphological Variation of Extant Sloth Skulls and their Implication for Future Conservation Efforts
25 April 2014
https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ar.22916
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Evolutionary adaptation to aquatic lifestyle in extinct sloths can lead to systemic alteration of bone structure
2018
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.2018.0270
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The ground sloth Megatherium americanum: Skull shape, bite forces, and diet
2001
https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app46/app46-173.pdf
------------------------------------------
Evolution of body size in anteaters and sloths (Xenarthra, Pilosa): phylogeny, metabolism, diet and substrate preferences
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/evolution-of-body-size-in-anteaters-and-sloths-xenarthra-pilosa-phylogeny-metabolism-diet-and-substrate-preferences/421A0CE4BDBEDA50117FC0AE9EED878C/core-reader
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The evolution of armadillos, anteaters, and sloths depicted by nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenies: implications for the status of the enigmatic fossil Eurotamandua.
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halsde-00192975/document
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How the earliest mammals thrived alongside dinosaurs
23 October 2019
An explosion of fossil finds reveals that ancient mammals evolved a wide variety of adaptations allowing them to exploit the skies, rivers and underground lairs.
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-03170-7
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The giant sloths that lived in the sea
http://www.eartharchives.org/articles/the-giant-sloths-that-lived-in-the-sea/
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27,000-year-old giant ground sloth tooth is like a climate time capsule
February 27, 2019
https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/27/world/giant-ground-sloth-fossil/index.html
------------------------------------------
The Evolution of Feeding Adaptations of the Aquatic Sloth Thalassocnus
2004
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4524727?seq=1
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Musculoskeletal networks reveal topological disparity in mammalian neck evolution
2017
https://bmcevolbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-1101-1
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Chewing through the Miocene: an examination of the feeding musculature in the ground sloth Hapalops from South America (Mammalia: Pilosa)
https://f1000research.com/articles/3-86
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What a 20 million-year-old monkey skull reveals about the evolution of human brains
August 22, 2019
https://nypost.com/2019/08/22/what-a-20-million-year-old-monkey-skull-reveals-about-the-evolution-of-human-brains/
---------------------------------------------
Scientists use a 20-million-year-old skull of a newly discovered ancient human ancestor found in Chile to map out how the human brain evolved
21 August 2019
Research was conducted on a fossil discovered high in the Andes mountains
Brain enlargement happened repeatedly over time with occasional decreases
It has long been thought that the brain size of anthropoid primates progressively
Experts used scanning and digital reconstruction methods to analyse the skull
Scientists also measured the eye socket and the opening to the optic canal
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7380559/Ancient-skull-suggests-complex-brain-evolution-primates.html
---------------------------------------------
Two monkey teeth: the first monkey fossils found in Serbia. Predrag RadoviÄ, Author provided
October 21, 2019
Monkey fossils found in Serbia offer clues about life in a warmer world millions of years ago
https://theconversation.com/monkey-fossils-found-in-serbia-offer-clues-about-life-in-a-warmer-world-millions-of-years-ago-125420
---------------------------------------------
Macroevolution of Primate Skull Shape: Combining Geometric Morphometrics and Phylogenetic Comparative Methods
2018
https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/handle/10161/17444
---------------------------------------------
Diurnality, Nocturnality, and the Evolution of Primate Visual Systems
2008
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ajpa.20957
---------------------------------------------
Primitive Old World monkey from the earliest Miocene of Kenya and the evolution of cercopithecoid bilophodonty
2019
https://www.pnas.org/content/116/13/6051
---------------------------------------------
Skull of humankind's oldest-known ancestor discovered
2019
‘Iconic’ finding of 3.8m-year-old fossil in Ethiopia casts doubt on previous evolutionary theory
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/aug/28/skull-of-human-ancestor-aged-38m-years-discovered
---------------------------------------------
Fossil Reveals What Last Common Ancestor of Humans and Apes Looked Liked
August 10, 2017
The 13-million-year-old infant skull may have resembled a baby gibbon
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fossil-reveals-what-last-common-ancestor-of-humans-and-apes-looked-liked/
---------------------------------------------
Evolution and development of the strepsirrhine primate skull
https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/16970/
---------------------------------------------
Sexual behaviour and evolution of sexual dimorphism in body size in Jaera (Isopoda Asellota)
1979
https://decapoda.nhm.org/pdfs/23872/23872.pdf
---------------------------------------------
Sexual Dimorphism in Primate Evolution
2001
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ajpa.10011
---------------------------------------------
Homo Erectus Was Sexually Dimorphic, New Evidence Shows
Mar 04, 2020
Experts explain to Haaretz how mere fragments of two skulls discovered in Ethiopia can be distinguished as male and female, and did it really use both crude and clever tools at the same time?
https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-homo-erectus-was-sexually-dimorphic-new-evidence-shows-1.8627492
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GENETIC VARIATION IN BABOON CRANIOFACIAL SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
2010
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2836714/
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A missing piece of the Papiopuzzle: Gorongosa baboon phenostructure and intrageneric relationships
2019
https://www.gorongosa.org/sites/default/files/research/a_missing_piece_of_the_papio_puzzle.pdf
---------------------------------------------
Skull of Earliest Baboon Discovered
August 21, 2015
https://www.livescience.com/51937-earliest-baboon-fossil.html
---------------------------------------------
Baboon bone found in famous Lucy skeleton
10 April 2015
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn27325-baboon-bone-found-in-famous-lucy-skeleton/
---------------------------------------------
Taung Child
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taung_Child
The Taung Child (or Taung Baby) is the fossilised skull of a young Australopithecus africanus. It was discovered in 1924 by quarrymen working for the Northern Lime Company in Taung, South Africa. Raymond Dart described it as a new species in the journal Nature in 1925.
The Taung skull is in repository at the University of Witwatersrand. Dean Falk, a specialist in brain evolution, has called it "the most important anthropological fossil of the twentieth century."
---------------------------------------------
Making Space for Permanent Molars in Growing Baboon (Papio anubis) and Great Ape (Pan paniscus and P. troglodytes) Mandibles: Possible Ontogenetic Strategies and Solutions
2011
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ari/2011/484607/
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First skull of Antillothrix bernensis, an extinct relict monkey from the Dominican Republic
2010
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2010.1249
---------------------------------------------
Scientists create ‘virtual brains’ from tiny primate skulls
2016
https://www.futurity.org/primates-brains-evolution-1224282-2/
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Monkeys and humans more closely related, new species disovery suggests
July 14, 2010
Humans and monkeys may have diverged more recently than scientists have thought, a partial primate skull discovered in Saudi Arabia suggests.
https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2010/0714/Monkeys-and-humans-more-closely-related-new-species-disovery-suggests
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Dian Fossey’s Gorilla Skulls Are Scientific Treasures and a Symbol of Her Fight
March 17, 2017
At a new Smithsonian exhibition, the skulls of “Limbo” and “Green Lady” have a story to tell
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/dian-fosseys-gorilla-skulls-are-scientific-treasures-and-symbol-her-fight-180962564/
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Gorilla-like anatomy on Australopithecus afarensis mandibles suggests Au. afarensis link to robust australopiths
2007
https://www.pnas.org/content/104/16/6568
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Sagittal Crest of the Skull
https://carta.anthropogeny.org/moca/topics/sagittal-crest-skull
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Unique human orbital morphology compared with that of apes
2015
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4480145/
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PATTERN OF CRANIAL ONTOGENY IN POPULATIONS OF GORILLA AND PAN
June 2018
https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/200300/Massey_umn_0130E_19416.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
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Great ape brains have a feature that we thought was unique to humans
14 February 2020
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2233798-great-ape-brains-have-a-feature-that-we-thought-was-unique-to-humans/
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Ancient "Nutcracker Man" Challenges Ideas on Evolution of Human Diet
2008
The researchers examined the teeth of Paranthropus boisei, an ancient hominin that lived between 2.3 and 1.2 million years ago and is known popularly as the "Nutcracker Man" because it has the biggest, flattest cheek teeth and the thickest enamel of any known human ancestor.
"Ungar and colleagues' work on Paranthropus boisei diet is extremely important," says Joanna Lambert, physical anthropology program director at NSF. "Understanding what and how early hominins ate sheds light not only onto the feeding biology of our fossil ancestors, but also onto the very evolution of our own species."
Scientists long have believed that P. boisei fed on nuts and seeds or roots and tubers found in the savannas throughout eastern Africa because the teeth, cranium and mandible appear to be built for chewing and crunching hard objects.
https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=111457
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A rare find: Skull of a juvenile ape 6 million years old unearthed
2013
An extremely rare juvenile skull of an extinct ape has now been revealed from China, findings that suggest a very diverse group of apes once lived in Southeast Asia, researchers say.
Apes, which include gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans, are the closest living relatives of humanity. They once inhabited most of the Old World, including large portions of Europe and Asia, and a much larger swath of Africa than they do at present.
A critical time in the evolution of humans and their ape relatives was the late Miocene Epoch about 5 million to 11 million years ago. Near the end of the Miocene, apes had become extinct in most of Eurasia.
https://www.nbcnews.com/sciencemain/rare-find-skull-juvenile-ape-6-million-years-old-unearthed-8C11122570
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Ancient skull belonged to a cousin of the ape common ancestor
9 August 2017
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2143384-ancient-skull-belonged-to-a-cousin-of-the-ape-common-ancestor/
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Anthropologist Adrienne Zihlman publishes 450-page opus on ape anatomy and evolution
September 24, 2019
https://news.ucsc.edu/2019/09/zihlman-anatomy.html
---------------------------------------------------------------
Australopithecines: Ancestors of the African Apes?
(1994)
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02437259
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5 Amazing Finds Beneath the Sands of the Sahara
2016
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SpSI-dsEk3k
3:50 - Skeletons of Niger
The skulls of Kiffians were darker and had larger eye sockets than Tenerians, the bones of Kiffians were denser and more rigid.
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Stock Photo - The human skeleton as compared to a gorilla skeleton
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/380202393523814562/
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Lower Ilium Evolution in Apes and Hominins
https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ar.23545
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An Inquiry Safari: What Can We Learn From Skulls?
2008
https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-007-0026-3
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Measure, Then Show: Grasping Human Evolution Through an Inquiry-Based, Data-driven Hominin Skulls Lab
2016
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0160054
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Chimps, Humans, and Monkeys: What’s the Difference?
2018
https://news.janegoodall.org/2018/06/27/chimps-humans-monkeys-whats-difference/
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How smart were our ancestors? Turns out the answer isn’t in brain size, but blood flow
January 26, 2020
https://theconversation.com/how-smart-were-our-ancestors-turns-out-the-answer-isnt-in-brain-size-but-blood-flow-130387
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Homo Erectus Used a Variety of Stone Tools for Hundreds of Thousands of Years, Study Finds
3/4/20
https://www.newsweek.com/homo-erectus-stone-tools-study-1490491
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Ape Skulls Shed Light on the Sex Lives of Our Early Human Ancestors
5/4/17
The skull of Paranthropus aethiopicus. The crest at the top of the skull was thought to be related to diet, but scientists now believe it served sexual selection function too.
https://www.newsweek.com/human-ancestors-sex-lives-social-structure-evolution-594525
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What Makes Us Human: Dopamine Injection Boosted Our Brains to Set Us Apart From Chimps and Monkeys
11/24/17
https://www.newsweek.com/human-brain-dopamine-intelligence-chimps-monkeys-721321
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Neanderthals Were Doomed to Go Extinct: Our Ancient Relatives 'Drifted' Into Oblivion
10/31/17
https://www.newsweek.com/neanderthal-extinction-doomed-early-human-migration-697686
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How We Got Here: Evolutionary Changes in Skull Shape in Humans & Their Ancestors
2012
https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/abt.2012.74.2.8?seq=1
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Getting to the Root of Enamel Evolution
May 5, 2014
Connecting genes to hominin teeth shows evidence of natural selection
https://today.duke.edu/2014/05/enamelevolution
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On aspects of skull form in African apes and orangutans, with implications for hominoid evolution
November 1985
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ajpa.1330680304
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There is a third species of orangutan and somehow nobody noticed
2 November 2017
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2152276-there-is-a-third-species-of-orangutan-and-somehow-nobody-noticed/
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Orangutan genome 'evolved slowly'
27 January 2011
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-12286281
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Extinct 2-million-year-old giant ape was direct relative of orangutan
16th November, 2019
Meet Gigantopithecus blacki, the three-metre-tall, 600 kg, 2 million-year-old ancestor of the modern-day orangutan.
https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/extinct-2-million-year-old-giant-ape-was-direct-relative-of-orangutan/
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Ancient Ape with 'Human Legs' and 'Orangutan Arms' Moved Like No Other Creature on Earth
November 06, 2019
https://www.livescience.com/danuvius-ape-new-species.html
Now, scientists have unearthed a new fossil great ape with complete limb bones that lived during the Miocene about 11.62 million years ago in what is now Bavaria in Germany.
The paleontologists named the species Danuvius guggenmosi. "Danuvius" is derived from the Celtic-Roman river god Danuvius, and "guggenmosi" honors Sigulf Guggenmos, who discovered the site where the fossil was found.
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The legacy of a great scientific hoax
The University of Melbourne’s anatomy museum features fossil models from an entirely fictional early human; a forgery that derailed the study of our evolution for decades
https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/the-legacy-of-a-great-scientific-hoax
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Ontogenetic study of the skull in modern humans and the common chimpanzees: neotenic hypothesis reconsidered with a tridimensional Procrustes analysis.
2002
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11953945
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Scientists home in on origin of human, chimpanzee facial differences
A study of species-specific regulation of gene expression in chimps and humans has identified regions important in human facial development and variation.
https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2015/09/scientists-home-in-on-origin-of-human-chimpanzee-facial.html
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Homo sapiens, Chimpanzees and the Enigma of Language
31 May 2019
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2019.00558/full
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The Difference Between Chimpanzee Skulls & Human Skulls
March 13, 2018
https://sciencing.com/difference-chimpanzee-skulls-human-skulls-8311413.html
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Humans Evolved Flexible, Lopsided Brains
April 23, 2013
https://www.livescience.com/28986-humans-evolved-asymmetric-brains.html
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Morphological distance between australopithecine, human and ape skulls
January 1996
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02456987
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What Gave Some Primates Bigger Brains? A Fruit-Filled Diet
March 28, 2017
https://www.elsevier.com/connect/why-lucys-baboon-bone-is-great-for-science-and-evolution-theory
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How Are Humans Related to Other Primates?: A Guided Inquiry Laboratory for Undergraduate Students
2006
https://www.genetics.org/content/172/3/1379
--------------------------------------------
Riddle of the Bones
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/humans/riddle/look.html
--------------------------------------------
Primate Cranial Diversity
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/primate-cranial-diversity-108207646/
Figure 4: Orbital size and orientation.
Nocturnal primates such as tarsiers (a) and owl monkeys (c) have relatively larger orbital apertures than diurnal species, such as the bamboo lemur (b) and capuchin monkey (d). Small body size and lack of retinal adaptations to low-light vision further contribute to extreme eye hypertrophy in nocturnal haplorhines (a,c). Orbital convergence (purple arrows) is generally greater in haplorhines such as the colobus monkey (f), whose orbits are anteriorly directed, than in strepsirrhines (e), whose orbits are more laterally directed. Frontation, which describes the vertical orientation of the orbital aperture (purple discs) relative to the neurocranium and/or lower face, is also generally greater in haplorhines (h), whose orbits are more vertical than those of strepsirrhines (g). Skull images not to scale.
Figure 5: Facial kyphosis and browridge development.
The angular orientation of the face relative to the neurobasicranium (kyphosis) is described in terms of klinorhynchy (greater kyphosis) versus airorhynchy (less kyphosis). In more klinorhynch primates (a), the face is rotated ventrally and posteriorly (counterclockwise red arrow) relative to the neurobasicranium (NB, blue); in more airorhynch species (b), the face is rotated dorsally and anteriorly relative to the neurobasicranium (clockwise red arrow). In large-bodied apes and Old World monkeys, klinorhynchy is associated with neuro-orbital disjunction, a spatial separation between the orbit and the anterior neurocranium (a, green arrow), and a relatively longer browridge (yellow arrow) than in more airorhynch taxa (b). In (c) and (d), sagittal CT sections of adult male Gorilla and Pongo crania illustrate variation in facial kyphosis and browridge development. In the relatively klinorhynch gorilla (c), the lower face (palate, red line) is ventrally oriented relative to the cranial base (clival plane, blue line). The orbital apertures are widely separated from the anterior braincase (green arrow), and the browridge (yellow arrow) is prominent. In the relatively airorhynch orangutan (d), the lower face (palate, red line) is dorsally oriented relative to the basicranium (clival plane, blue line). Neuro-orbital disjunction is absent; there is no true browridge; and the nasopharynx (NPh, black arrow) is less restricted than in the gorilla (c). Because of the need to maintain an open airway, the position of the nasopharynx (NPh) between the palate and the cranial base is a potential constraint on facial kyphosis in relatively long-faced species. Cranial images are not to scale.
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Gigantopithecus Blacki: Bigfoot-Giganto Theory
June 18, 2019
https://exemplore.com/cryptids/Gigantopithecus-Blacki-The-Real-Bigfoot
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MONSTER FOUND ‘Original Bigfoot’ was giant ape twice the size of a human that roamed Earth 2 million years ago
15 Nov 2019
https://www.thesun.co.uk/tech/10352675/original-bigfoot-giant-ape-evidence-found/
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‘Giants’ in the land: an assessment of Gigantopithecus and Meganthropus
Figure 1. In comparison with a human mandible (right), or even that of a gorilla (centre), the dimensions of the biggest of the lower jaws of the giant ape Gigantopithecus (left) is enormous. Note that, although restored in the illustration, the ascending portion of the ape’s jaw was not present in any of the four fossil jaws of Gigantopithecus (after Simons and Ettel).
https://creation.com/giants-in-the-land-an-assessment-of-gigantopithecus-and-meganthropus
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Gigantopithecus Diet Revealed
Nov 15, 2011
http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/gigantopithecus-diet-revealed.html
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Gigantopithecus blacki: a giant ape from the Pleistocene of Asia revisited
20 January 2017
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajpa.23150
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Dated co-occurrence of Homo erectus and Gigantopithecus from Tham Khuyen Cave, Vietnam
April 2, 1996
https://www.pnas.org/content/93/7/3016
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Ancient enamel sheds light on extinct giant ape
14 November 2019
https://cosmosmagazine.com/palaeontology/ancient-enamel-sheds-light-on-extinct-giant-ape
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Assessing Mandibular Shape Variation Within Gigantopithecus Using a Geometric Morphometric Approach
2008
http://www.references.260mb.com/Biometria/Miller2008.pdf?i=1
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Key to early humans found in giant ape’s tooth
15 November 2019
In 1935, anthropologist Gustav von Koenigswald found a strange set of teeth in a traditional medicine store in Hong Kong.
The specimens were being sold as “dragon teeth” but when he examined them, von Koenigswald was puzzled to find that they looked exactly like the teeth of a great ape — but impossibly huge.
Gigantopithecus blacki was an ancient ape — a “King Kong” — that went extinct around 300,000 years ago. At 10-feet-tall and weighing twice as much as a gorilla, G. blacki would tower over the tallest-ever human by almost half a metre...
https://theday.co.uk/stories/key-to-early-humans-found-in-giant-ape-s-tooth
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Evolutionary trend in dental size in Gigantopithecus blacki revisited
April 2015
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275279347_Evolutionary_trend_in_dental_size_in_Gigantopithecus_blacki_revisited
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The facial skeleton of the chimpanzee-human last common ancestor
2008
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2409098/
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Extinct giant ape directly linked to the living orangutan
November 13, 2019
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/11/191113153053.htm
By using ancient protein sequencing, researchers have retrieved genetic information from a 1.9 million year old extinct, giant primate that used to live in a subtropical area in southern China. The genetic information allows the researchers to uncover the evolutionary position of Gigantopithecus blacki, a three-meter tall and may be up to 600 kg heavy primate, revealing the orangutan as its closest, living relative.
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Why Earth's Largest Ape Went Extinct
January 11, 2016
https://www.livescience.com/53313-biggest-ape-forest-dweller.html
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Researchers Shake Up Lemur Family Tree
April 26, 2016
https://news.stonybrook.edu/research/researchers-shake-up-lemur-family-tree/
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Fossils Rewrite the Story of Lemur Origins
https://lemur.duke.edu/fossils-rewrite-the-story-of-lemur-origins/
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Evidence of early butchery of giant lemurs in Madagascar
2005
https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/campuspress.yale.edu/dist/e/421/files/2015/01/Perez-et-al-2012.pdf
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Why Lemurs Smell Better than You
http://www.bu.edu/articles/2018/primate-sense-of-smell/
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Do Muscles Constrain Skull Shape Evolution in Strepsirrhines?
2018
https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ar.23712
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Why Ida fossil is not the missing link
21 May 2009
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17173-why-ida-fossil-is-not-the-missing-link/
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Biology 220 -Human Evolution Lab
A comparison of primate skulls
D. Sillman, Penn State New Kensington
http://www.personal.psu.edu/dys100/Evolution.pdf
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Development and growth in skulls of three Otariidae species: a comparative morphometric study
November 2018
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/development-and-growth-in-skulls-of-three-otariidae-species-a-comparative-morphometric-study/B1037852BAF6AA7DB047F77ABF7A27FD
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Do these skulls prove common ancestry between apes and humans?
6 October 2018
https://creation.com/ape-human-transitional-skull
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A Brief History of Life on Earth: The Full Series
Aug 9, 2017
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Wfu0GR-mE8
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How early mammals evolved night vision to avoid predators
June 20, 2016
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/06/160620140929.htm
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Phototransduction and the Evolution of Photoreceptors
2010
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2898276/
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Octopus And Squid Evolution Is Officially Weirder Than We Could Have Ever Imagined
17 MARCH 2018
https://www.sciencealert.com/octopus-and-squid-evolution-is-officially-weirder-than-we-could-have-ever-imagined
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Squid evolved in marine wars more than 100 million years ago
1 March 2017
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2123118-squid-evolved-in-marine-wars-more-than-100-million-years-ago/
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Two eyes for two purposes: in situ evidence for asymmetric vision in the cockeyed squids Histioteuthis heteropsis and Stigmatoteuthis dofleini
05 April 2017
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2016.0069
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Human Brains Have Evolved Unique 'Feel-Good' Circuits
November 23, 2017
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/11/23/566034172/human-brains-have-evolved-unique-feel-good-circuits
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Did Humans Really Evolve from Ape-Like Creatures?
May 29, 2018
https://answersingenesis.org/adam-and-eve/did-humans-really-evolve-from-ape-like-creatures/
Christian Assumptions about the Origin of Man
Most Bible-believing Christians in America believe that God created man and all other kinds of animals and plants in essentially their present form (generally represented by the family, not the species, taxonomic classification) by the power of His Word and Spirit. They observe and recognize the ongoing processes of extinction and limited variation within each kind, but point out that this has never been shown to produce fundamentally new kinds of creatures. Thus, they believe God created apes and God created men, but God did not create “ape-men” and apes didn’t change into man (with or without God’s providence). There are, however, a substantial number of professing Christians who believe God used evolution to “create.” But rarely do they specify what actual role God plays in evolution, or even if His existence is necessary for the evolution of the material cosmos.
Those Christians who attempt to accommodate evolution should reflect on the fact that professional evolutionists believe that religion itself is a product of evolution. Out of 14 billion years of purely materialistic cosmic evolution, religion is claimed to have evolved in the imagination of man’s ancestors only a few hundred thousand years ago. As the evolutionist Julian Huxley once put it, “Evolution is the whole of reality, a single process of self-transformation.”8 Theologians and Christian laymen should be aware that evolution is a jealous “god” that will have no other gods before it.
Evolutionist Assumptions about the Origin of Man
The foundational assumption of evolutionism is that evolution is a purely scientific and materialistic (naturalistic) explanation for the origin of everything that is real (i.e., the material universe). Divine intervention and intelligent design are anathema to nearly all evolutionary scientists. Nothing is considered to be above or outside of evolution, including the origin of man and his mental faculties. Even religion is considered to be a product of evolution. For example, an evolutionist from Humboldt University in Berlin observed chimps throwing rocks at trees for no apparent reason and concluded that this was a “worship ritual” telling us something about the evolution of religion. This was widely and enthusiastically reported in the popular media under the banner “Chimps believe in God!”9
Evolutionists assume that amoeba-to-man evolution is an absolute fact, though they concede that the details regarding the actual mechanism of biological evolution and what creature evolved into what are theoretical or even speculative. In the case of human evolution, it is considered an unassailable fact that humans have evolved from nonhuman ancestors. Thus, paleoanthropologists never ask the question, “Did man evolve from ape-like creatures?” Indeed, such a question would likely be career-ending. Paleoanthropologists need only concern themselves with which of the ape-like creatures that have been found in the fossil record are our ancestors. They are certain that at least some of these fossil apes must be our ancestors or else we wouldn’t have any ape-like ancestors, and that’s unthinkable to an evolutionist.
Another primary assumption of evolutionism is that the degree of anatomical, functional, and genetic similarity between two creatures is considered evidence of their degree of evolutionary relatedness. For example, humans are obviously more similar to apes than they are to fish, so our presumed evolutionary relationship to apes is considered to be much closer than it is to fish. But even fish are considered to be our distant relatives, because we both have vertebrae and other similarities common to vertebrates.
But there are countless examples of striking structural and functional similarities between unrelated organisms that make no sense in terms of evolutionary relatedness. For example,
Opossums and primates have an opposable thumb.
Australian koalas have fingerprints almost indistinguishable from humans.
Bats, whales, and shrews have similar sonar-like echolocation.
Among vertebrates, only mammals and certain salamanders and fish have non-nucleated red blood cells.
There are many strikingly similar pairs of marsupial and placental mammals, yet evolutionists believe the two separated 160 million years ago.
A single cell dinoflagellate (protozoan) has been found with a vertebrate-like camera eye consisting essentially of a cornea, lens, and retina derived from subcellular organelles including mitochondria and plastids.
All of these similarities are “explained” by evolutionists with a rescuing hypothesis called “convergent evolution.” Convergent evolution is when two distantly related or unrelated creatures are claimed to have independently evolved by chance the same trait or traits. It would seem that evolutionists consider anything possible, even probable, except intelligent design of biological systems by our Creator.
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Retardation and neotony in human evolution
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anthl_06.html
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The Comparison of Mean IQ in Muslim and Non-Muslim Countries
March 2010
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287555828_The_Comparison_of_Mean_IQ_in_Muslim_and_Non-Muslim_Countries
Abstract
The present research found that the Muslim country mean IQ of 81 is half a standard deviation below the mean IQ of non-Muslim nations and is not related to strength of Muslim culture as defined by the percentage of Muslims in the country. The mean IQ of 84 in Arab countries is not associated with per capita income and is incompatible with the intellectual achievements of the golden age of the Muslim Empire. Possible explanations for this decline include hybridization with sub-Saharan Africans, dysgenic decrease in the more educated Muslims employing birth control as suggested by Meisenberg, the Muslim religion not fostering critical thinking, and the intellectual contributions being both exaggerated and made by non-Muslims.
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Low IQ muslim Inbreeding based on the ideology proves islam has the potential of wiping out civilization as we know it
April 24, 2018
https://www.newscats.org/?p=14505
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Pretending that Intelligence Doesn’t Matter
https://dana.org/article/pretending-that-intelligence-doesnt-matter/
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UK PM's adviser quits amid backlash over comments on IQ, race
17 Feb 2020
Andrew Sabisky once suggested black people had lower IQs and discussed the benefits of forced contraception.
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/02/uk-pm-adviser-quits-backlash-comments-iq-race-200217212843058.html
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Speak Out: Inbred Muslims
https://www.semissourian.com/forums/speakout/thread/6660
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Why Are Modern Humans Relatively Browless?
July 2018
The function of early hominins’ enlarged brow ridges, and their reduction in size in Homo sapiens, have puzzled paleoanthropologists for decades.
https://www.the-scientist.com/notebook/raising-brows-64344
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Are Neanderthals Human?
September 19, 2012
Neanderthals present a conundrum well known in biology: What exactly is a species?
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/are-neanderthals-human/
Europeans and Asians carry a small portion of DNA inherited from Neanderthals.
But some researchers challenged this view. They pointed out that for thousands of years, Europe was home to the burly Neanderthals as well as slender humans. Neanderthals didn't give rise to living Europeans, these scientists argued; they were replaced by immigrants expanding out of Africa—perhaps even outcompeted into extinction.
Over the past 15 years, Svante PÀÀbo, a geneticist at the Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology, and his colleagues have uncovered an entirely new source of evidence about the nature of Neanderthals: their DNA. Starting with those fossils from the Neander Valley, they extracted bits of genetic material that had survived tens of thousands of years. Eventually, they were able to assemble the fragments into the entire Neanderthal genome.
(Australian Aborigines have a prominent brow ridge, a fact that helped lead Thomas Huxley to argue that Neanderthals were indeed human).
A question of breeding
That's a long time—long enough to reasonably ask if humans and Neanderthals are indeed two separate species. Old species split into new ones when some of their members get isolated from the rest. If a river cuts the range of a species of frog in two, for example, the frogs on one side of the river may only be able to mate with one another. Each population will evolve along its own path. If they are isolated long enough, they will have trouble interbreeding. They may even be unable to interbreed at all.
From these facts of evolution, the biologist Ernst Mayr developed what came to be known as the Biological Species Concept in the 1940s—namely, a species is made up of members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature. Experiments on living animals have shown that barriers to this interbreeding can arise in tens of thousands, or even just thousands, of years.
Once the Neanderthal lineage left Africa 800,000 years ago, did humans and Neanderthals have enough time to become unable to interbreed? PÀÀbo's research provides an answer: no.
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A 150-Year Conundrum: Cranial Robusticity and Its Bearing on the Origin of Aboriginal Australians
2011
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijeb/2011/632484/
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Do Australian Aboriginal people have low intelligence and sexual control?
https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/35866/do-australian-aboriginal-people-have-low-intelligence-and-sexual-control
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Meet Australian Aborigines–They Make African Americans Look Like A Model Minority
https://www.unz.com/article/meet-australian-aborigines-they-make-african-americans-look-like-a-model-minority/
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Poor Performance by Dark Skin Aboriginals on Q&A
2014
"Aboriginal" heavy episode of Q&A showed a sharp difference between the biracial aboriginals and the full blooded ones. The biracial ones were eloquent and intelligent, the full blooded ones could not speak well and appeared less intelligent.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7bcVqPqNp0
---------------------------------------------------------------
"Scientist" claiming that the average Australian aborigine is only capable of emptying the rubbish
https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=2596989
He states that the Australian aborigines and sub-saharan bushmen have average IQs of 62 and 60 respectively (an IQ of <70 is usually defined as mentally handicapped), and then he's asked what kind of job a person with an IQ at this level would be capable of he responds with "emptying the rubbish".
Is this just politically charged racism or do his claims actually have some measure of validity?
---------------------------------------------------------------
A quantitative study of Australian aboriginal and Caucasian brains.
1987
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1261675/
---------------------------------------------
Earliest evidence of artificial cranial deformation in Croatia during 5th-6th century
August 21, 2019
Head shape may have distinguished social groups among diverse cultures during migration period
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/08/190821142725.htm
------------------------------------------------------
Pointy Skulls Belonged to ‘Foreign’ Brides, Ancient DNA Suggests
Archaeologists have long suspected that modified skulls in German burials belonged to the Huns. Now genetic evidence may confirm it.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2018/03/barbarian-huns-dna-germany-migration-antiquity-skull/
------------------------------------------------------
Researchers discover genetic mutation behind serious skull disorder
July 01, 2019
https://today.oregonstate.edu/news/researchers-discover-genetic-mutation-behind-serious-skull-disorder
CORVALLIS, Ore. – A collaboration led by scientists at Oregon State University, the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom and Erasmus University in The Netherlands has identified a new genetic mutation behind the premature fusing of the bony plates that make up the skull.
The findings are a key step toward preventing a serious cranial condition that affects roughly one child in 2,250, and also toward understanding how the protein the gene encodes works in the development and function of other organ systems such as skin, teeth and the immune system.
In the skull, when one or more of the fibrous joints, called skull sutures, between cranial bones close too soon – a condition known as craniosynostosis – the resulting early plate fusion disrupts proper growth of the skull and brain.
Pressure inside the cranium can lead to a variety of medical problems including impaired vision, respiration and mental function, as well as abnormal head shape. Males are affected at slightly higher rates, and most cases are termed “sporadic” – meaning they occur by chance.
“As an individual grows, sutures are supposed to close gradually, with complete fusion taking place in the third decade of life,” said Oregon State researcher Mark Leid. “Proper suture formation, maintenance and ossification require an exquisitely choreographed balance – stem cells and their progeny need to proliferate and differentiate at just the right time.”
Leid, professor and interim dean of the OSU College of Pharmacy, and scientists Stephen Twigg of Oxford and Irene Mathijssen of Erasmus University in Rotterdam performed whole-genome sequencing on a male craniosynostosis patient and found a mutation in a gene known as BCL11B.
Neither of the patient’s parents had symptoms of craniosynostosis, a family history of the condition, or carried the mutation, which generated a single amino acid change in the BCL11B protein.
The international research group proved that the human patient’s mutation was causative for craniosynostosis by utilizing a mouse model harboring the same mutation. Like the human patient, the genetically modified mouse exhibited craniosynostosis at birth.
“Our data demonstrate that the identified amino acid substitution caused craniosynostosis in the patient we studied,” Leid said. “The mouse model that we created should be useful in dissecting the mechanisms behind the role of the BCL11B protein in keeping sutures open, as well as the role of the protein in the development and function of other organ systems.”
------------------------------------------------------
{The premature fusing of the bony plates that make up the skull seem to also be a problem in mice, including Orientals and Negroes. This is the same reason why Orientals and blacks have eye and nasal problems, and this is also why we consider Orientals and blacks to have brachycephalic and
often deformed looking faces. This is why we need strict population control and to limit the numbers of Negros, Orientals and Indians}.
------------------------------------------------------
Genetically-modified bone mesenchymal stem cells with TGF-ÎČ3 improve wound healing and reduce scar tissue formation in a rabbit model.
2018
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29453974
---------------------------------------------------------
Nanobiomechanics of repair bone regenerated by genetically modified mesenchymal stem cells.
2008
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18620480
---------------------------------------------------------
Treatment of Bone Defects by Transplantation of Genetically Modified Mesenchymal Stem Cell Spheroids
June 2018
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2329050118300445
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetically Modified Human Bone Marrow Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Improving the Outcome of Human Islet Transplantation
October 29, 2013
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0077591
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetically modified bone marrow continuously supplies anti-inflammatory cells and suppresses renal injury in mouse Goodpasture syndrome
2001
https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/98/1/57/88911/Genetically-modified-bone-marrow-continuously
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetic modification of chondrocytes with insulin-like growth factor-1 enhances cartilage healing in an equine model
May 2007
https://online.boneandjoint.org.uk/doi/full/10.1302/0301-620X.89B5.18343
---------------------------------------------------------
Implant Composed of Demineralized Bone and Mesenchymal Stem Cells Genetically Modified with AdBMP2/AdBMP7 for the Regeneration of Bone Fractures in Ovis aries
2016
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/sci/2016/7403890/
---------------------------------------------------------
Determination of the Chondrogenic Differentiation Processes in Human Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Genetically Modified to Overexpress Transforming Growth Factor-ÎČ via Recombinant Adeno-Associated Viral Vectors
21 Oct 2014
https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/hum.2014.091
--------------------------------------------------------
Erythropoietin Delivery by Genetically Engineered Bone Marrow Stromal Cells for Correction of Anemia in Mice with Chronic Renal Failure
June 2006
https://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/17/6/1576
Articular cartilage repair by genetically modified bone marrow aspirate in sheep
11 March 2010
https://www.nature.com/articles/gt201016
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetic engineering promises improved bone marrow transplants
18 February 2019
https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/genetic-engineering-promises-improved-bone-marrow-transplants
---------------------------------------------------------
Intrathecal administration of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells genetically modified with human proenkephalin gene decrease nociceptive pain in neuropathic rats
April 5, 2017
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1744806917701445
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetically Modified Animal Models as Tools for Studying Bone and Mineral Metabolism
2004
https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1359/JBMR.040206
---------------------------------------------------------
Breakthrough Mouse Research Shows Stem Cells Can Be Genetically Edited Inside The Body
6 JUNE 2019
https://www.sciencealert.com/breakthrough-research-shows-stem-cells-can-be-genetically-edited-inside-the-body
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetically modified mesenchymal stromal cells in cancer therapy
November 2016
https://www.celltherapyjournal.org/article/S1465-3249(16)30512-6/fulltext
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetically Modified Mesenchymal Stem Cells Induce Mechanically Stable Posterior Spine Fusion
2010
http://www.kumc.edu/Documents/msctc/Sheyn%20D,%20Tissue%20Eng%20Part%20A.%202010%20.pdf
---------------------------------------------------------
Blue Dye in M&Ms Helps Spinal Cord Injuries?
2009
Compound Similar to Food Dye May Help People With Spinal Injuries Regain Movement
https://www.webmd.com/brain/news/20090729/blue-dye-mms-helps-spinal-cord-injuries
---------------------------------------------------------
Sky-blue dye could help repair damaged heart tissue
January 12, 2020
The small molecule reduces damaging inflammation and improves heart function in mouse models of heart attack, say Israeli scientists.
https://www.israel21c.org/sky-blue-dye-could-help-repair-damaged-heart-tissue/
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetically modified apple that won't turn brown coming soon
Oct 10, 2017
https://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/genetically-modified-apple-won-turn-brown-coming-article-1.3553922
---------------------------------------------------------
This Genetically Modified Lettuce May Help In Healing Bone Fracture
February 26, 2020
A new study has discovered genetically modified lettuce plants which could stimulate the growth of bone-building cells and promote bone regeneration
https://food.ndtv.com/news/this-genetically-modified-lettuce-may-help-in-healing-bone-fracture-2186041
----------------------------------------------------------
Genetically Engineered Purple Tomato could fight cancer
October 27, 2008
https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/genetically-engineered-purple-tomato-could-fight-cancer
----------------------------------------------------------
The dominant developmental mutants of tomato, Mouse-ear and Curl, are associated with distinct modes of abnormal transcriptional regulation of a Knotted gene.
1997
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9437860
----------------------------------------------------------
Scientist famous for human ear on mouse accused of cheating
Aug 26, 2011
https://www.irishtimes.com/news/scientist-famous-for-human-ear-on-mouse-accused-of-cheating-1.606723
----------------------------------------------------------
The Monsanto GMO Story: Adding a Fish Gene Into Tomatoes
April/May 2000
https://www.motherearthnews.com/real-food/adding-a-fish-gene-into-tomatoes-zmaz00amzgoe
----------------------------------------------------------
Genetically-modified purple tomatoes heading for shops
24 January 2014
https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25885756
----------------------------------------------------------
Genetically engineering tomatoes to fight bone growth defects in animals
Mar 29, 2016
https://indiabioscience.org/news/2016/genetically-engineering-tomatoes-to-fight-bone-growth-defects-in-animals
----------------------------------------------------------
The Genetically Modified Foods That Affect Bone Density
https://saveourbones.com/the-gmo-foods-that-affect-bone-density/
----------------------------------------------------------
The human gut chemical landscape predicts microbe-mediated biotransformation of foods and drugs
Jun 11, 2019
https://elifesciences.org/articles/42866/figures
----------------------------------------------------------
Plasmid-based genetic modification of human bone marrow-derived stromal cells: analysis of cell survival and transgene expression after transplantation in rat spinal cord
14 December 2007
https://bmcbiotechnol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6750-7-90
---------------------------------------------------------
In A 1st, Doctors In U.S. Use CRISPR Tool To Treat Patient With Genetic Disorder
July 29, 2019
For the first time, doctors in the U.S. have used the powerful gene-editing technique CRISPR to try to treat a patient with a genetic disorder.
"It is just amazing how far things have come," says Victoria Gray, 34, of Forest, Miss. "It is wonderful," she told NPR in an exclusive interview after undergoing the landmark treatment for sickle cell disease.
Gray is the first patient ever to be publicly identified as being involved in a study testing the use of CRISPR for a genetic disease.
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/07/29/744826505/sickle-cell-patient-reveals-why-she-is-volunteering-for-landmark-gene-editing-st
----------------------------------------------------------
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MINERAL/MATRIX TO EVALUATE GENETICALLY ALTERED BONE WITH INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY AND X-RAY SPECTRAL IMAGING
Abstract
This thesis focuses on the characterization of bone with the help of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy. Such analysis of the physics and chemistry of biomaterials is vital to resolve problems in life science of bone-related diseases and disorders. Material characterization can help in the understanding of disease mechanisms and lead to useful drugs and other treatments. In this thesis, I have used bone materials produced by groundbreaking research at UT Southwestern Research Center and Texas Scottish Rite Children's Hospital to establish that idiopathic clubfoot (Talipes equinovarus) is associated with the Follistatin 5 gene. We studied healthy wild-type laboratory rats in comparison with genetically modified rats, called knock-out type, in which function of the Follistatin 5 gene was controlled with genetic engineering. We were able to identify significant differences in mineral and matrix composition of bone despite considerable variability in the samples. For mid-diaphysis of bone, matrix content was reduced in the knockout compared to the wild-type, leading to the increased mineral to matrix ratio in the knockout.
https://rc.library.uta.edu/uta-ir/handle/10106/27477
-----------------------------------------------------------
Scientists say genetically modified babies will have shorter lives
June 4th, 2019
https://bgr.com/2019/06/04/crispr-baby-genetic-modification-life-expectancy/
In late 2018 a Chinese scientist name He Jiankui performed work that has gained him not only the criticism of his peers but also backlash from his home country’s government. He took the extraordinary step of performing genetic modification on human embryos with the intention of having them carried to term. A pair of newborns resulted from the work, marking the start of a potentially dangerous new era of genetic experimentation.
The decision to genetically modify the babies has been roundly decried by others in the genetics field, and a new paper published in Nature Medicine suggests that the modifications He made to the two children may ultimately doom them to early deaths.
---------------------------------------------------------
Will we ever have genetically modified astronauts?
24th November 2017
https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20171123-will-we-ever-have-genetically-modified-astronauts
---------------------------------------------------------
How scientists are engineering silk to save our bodies
May 4, 2018
It’s strong, stretchy, and compatible with the human body
https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/4/17318362/silk-health-medicine-wounds-genetic-engineering-strength
---------------------------------------------------------
Genetically‑modified stem cells in treatment of human diseases: Tissue kallikrein (KLK1)‑based targeted therapy (Review)
January 3, 2018
https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijmm.2018.3361
---------------------------------------------------------
Read a Harvard geneticist's plan for redesigning humans
21 July, 2019
Professor George Church creates a gene "wishlist" that can lead to superhuman abilities.
https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/harvard-geneticist-plan-for-redesigning-humans
---------------------------------------------------------
3D-Printed Heart Created by Israeli Researchers in World First: 'This Heart Is Made From Human Cells'
4/17/19
https://www.newsweek.com/3d-printed-heart-human-tissue-world-first-1398925
-----------------------------------------------------
High-level expression of porcine factor VIII from genetically modified bone marrow–derived stem cells
May 15, 2006
https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/107/10/3859/109801/High-level-expression-of-porcine-factor-VIII-from
-----------------------------------------------------
Doctors Try Genetically Modified Poliovirus As Experimental Brain Cancer Treatment
June 26, 2018
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/06/26/622610333/doctors-try-genetically-modified-poliovirus-as-experimental-brain-cancer-treatme
-----------------------------------------------------
Genetic Modification of Stem Cells in Diabetes and Obesity
https://www.intechopen.com/books/genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications/genetic-modification-of-stem-cells-in-diabetes-and-obesity
------------------------------------------------------
A Novel Genetically Engineered Human Osteoblasts for the in Vitro Study of Biomaterials
2008
https://www.oulu.fi/spareparts/ebook_topics_in_t_e_vol4/abstracts/tognon.pdf
------------------------------------------------------
Genetically Modified T Cells Might Help Fight HIV
January 2, 2018
Preliminary work in monkeys suggests stem cells can be engineered to help combat the virus
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/genetically-modified-t-cells-might-help-fight-hiv/
-----------------------------------------------------
2nd person cured of HIV thanks to stem cell transplant
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/2nd-person-cured-of-hiv-thanks-to-stem-cell-transplant
-----------------------------------------------------
More about the Viking hypothesis of origin of the delta32 mutation in the CCR5 gene conferring resistance to HIV-1 infection.
2003
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14636691
-----------------------------------------------------
Biologists discover why 10% of Europeans are safe from HIV infection
10-Mar-2005
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-03/uol-bdw031005.php
------------------------------------------------------
The Genetic Mutation Behind the Only Apparent Cure for HIV
March 14, 2019
https://www.thebodypro.com/article/genetic-mutation-behind-hiv-cure
-----------------------------------------------------
Why Germany's Coronavirus Death Rate Is Far Lower Than In Other Countries
March 25, 2020
https://www.npr.org/2020/03/25/820595489/why-germanys-coronavirus-death-rate-is-far-lower-than-in-other-countries?utm_source=pocket-newtab
---------------------
Coronavirus: Iceland’s mass testing finds half of carriers show no symptoms
https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2020/03/25/Coronavirus-Iceland-s-mass-testing-finds-half-of-carriers-show-no-symptoms
-------------------
Finland's Fascinating Genes
April. 2005
The
people in this land of lakes and forests are so alike that scientists
can filter out the genes that contribute to heart disease, diabetes, and
asthma
http://discovermagazine.com/2005/apr/29-finlands-fascinating-genes
-------------------
{Notice how many white Nordic people in Iceland are immune from the
virus, while the Chinese continue to have a higher death rate percentage
over Iceland.
America is a white nation. This is what happens when we go from being a
first world white nation, to allowing a bunch of 3rd world degenerates
and the cursed races such as Blacks, illegal Mexicans, Chinese and
degenerates into a first world nation.
America needs to go back to being a white nation in order to stop the degeneration of America.
We demand population control and Race control, we need to round up all
the Chinese, Mexicans and blacks, then we must deport these groups back
to Africa and Asia}.
------------------------------
Cancer tumors gain drug resistance by eating dead cells
Researchers have identified a mechanism by which tumors become resistant to cancer drugs.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/cancer-tumors-gain-drug-resistance-by-eating-dead-cells
---------------------------------------------
Jaws to ears in the ancestors of mammals
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evograms_05
All the animals you see on this evogram are synapsids, the group that gave rise to the mammals. Sometimes synapsids are called "mammal-like reptiles;" however, that is misleading because synapsids are not reptiles. Synapsids and reptiles are two distinct groups of amniotes, animals that produce young that are enveloped with a membrane called an amnion that prevents desiccation. All reptiles (including birds) have eggs with amniotic membranes (which some lay and others retain inside their bodies until hatching). And of course all mammals (the clade of synapsids still alive today) reproduce using an amnion, and those that lay eggs (e.g., the platypus and echidna) produce amniotic eggs.
-----------------------------------------------
Biomechanical Consequences of Rapid Evolution in the Polar Bear Lineage
2010
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2974639/
---------------------------------------------------
VARIATION IN SKULL MORPHOLOGY OF BROWN BEARS (URSUS ARCTOS) FROM CAUCASUS
https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/79/1/118/841857
----------------------------------------------------
Diet and Morphology of Extant and Recently Extinct Northern Bears
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3873160?seq=1
----------------------------------------------------
From brown to white – evolution of the polar bear
2014.05.09
https://arctic.au.dk/news-and-events/news/show/artikel/from-brown-to-white-evolution-of-the-polar-bear/
----------------------------------------------------
Evolutionary history and palaeoecology of brown bear in North-East Siberia re-examined using ancient DNA and stable isotopes from skeletal remains
14 March 2019
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-40168-7
----------------------------------------------------
Extinct vegetarian cave bear diet mystery unravelled
July 28, 2018
Summary:
Until now, very little is known about the dietary evolution of the cave bear and how it became a vegetarian, as the fossils of the direct ancestor, the Deninger's bear (Ursus deningeri), are extremely scarce.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/07/180728083510.htm
----------------------------------------------------
Ancient bear with bad teeth offers insight into modern bear ecology
December 20, 2017
Researchers say cavities in fossilized bear teeth suggest that even early in their evolution, bears geared up for winter by eating sugary berries
https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/ancient-bear-bad-teeth-offers-insight-modern-bear-ecology
-----------------------------------------------------
Mandible size and shape in extant Ursidae (Carnivora, Mammalia): A tool for taxonomy and ecogeography
22 June 2017
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jzs.12171
---------------------------------------------------
Allometric Growth Pattern of Skull on Brown Bear (Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758) of the Alborz Mountain
March 2014
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272478184_Allometric_Growth_Pattern_of_Skull_on_Brown_Bear_Ursus_arctos_Linnaeus_1758_of_the_Alborz_Mountain
----------------------------------------------------
How Grizzlies Evolved into Polar Bears
June 10, 2008
https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/arctic-bears-how-grizzlies-evolved-into-polar-bears/777/
----------------------------------------------------
These ancient giant bears evolved separately at the same time
21 April 2016
Short-faced bears, taller than a person when on all fours, roamed North and South America millions of years ago. A new study suggests they're not related – populations on each continent grew massive independently. Amy Middleton reports.
https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/these-ancient-giant-bears-evolved-same-time
---------------------------------------------------
Skull Science
https://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/skullscience.pdf
----------------------------------------------------
Skulls of Alaskan Mammals
https://www.pugetsound.edu/files/resources/10169_Alaskan%20skulls%20teacher%20guide.pdf
----------------------------------------------
The first ancestors of giant pandas probably lived in Europe
2017
https://www.newscientist.com/article/2151717-the-first-ancestors-of-giant-pandas-probably-lived-in-europe/
----------------------------------------------
A Tale of Two Pandas Case Study
Background
For over a century, scientists debated whether the giant panda was more closely related to bears or the red panda, an animal that is more closely related to the raccoon family. This documents shows multiple pieces of evidence that have been collected over the years—evidence from anatomy, behavior, DNA, and fossils.
https://teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/evolution/ancestry/pdfs/panda-case-study.pdf
------------------------------------------
The first skull of the earliest giant panda
2007
https://www.pnas.org/content/104/26/10932
------------------------------------------
Extinct Giant Panda Lineage Discovered Thanks to DNA From 22,000-Year-Old Skull
2018
https://gizmodo.com/extinct-giant-panda-lineage-discovered-thanks-to-dna-fr-1826874048
------------------------------------------
Cranial shape transformation in the evolution of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca).
2010
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21132275
------------------------------------------
Bears and Bamboo: The fossil record of giant pandas
01.31.11
https://www.wired.com/2011/01/bears-and-bamboo-the-fossil-record-of-giant-pandas/
------------------------------------------
Raccoon Dog, Nyctereutes procyonoides, Populations in the Area of Origin and in Colonised Regions — The Epigenetic Variability of an Immigrant
February 2009
https://academic.oup.com/cz/article-pdf/57/5/584/32967619/czoolo57-0584.pdf
--------------------------------------------
EVOLUTION OF CRANIAL CAVITIES IN GIANT PANDAS (AILUROPODA, CARNIVORA, MAMMALIA)
2011
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271770780_EVOLUTION_OF_CRANIAL_CAVITIES_IN_GIANT_PANDAS_AILUROPODA_CARNIVORA_MAMMALIA
------------------------------------------
Giant Kangaroos Had A Crushing Bite More Akin To A Giant Panda Than A Modern Roo
2019
https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/giant-kangaroos-had-a-crushing-bite-more-akin-to-a-giant-panda-than-a-modern-roo/
------------------------------------------
Modern panda's extinct pygmy ancestor
2007
https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2007/06/19/1955296.htm
The giant panda's earliest known ancestor was a "pygmy-sized" bear that lived about two million years ago in the lowland tropical forests of south China, a new study has found.
This week's Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences reports on a complete skull of a panda about half the size of the famous current-day bamboo-munching bear.
The skull is about 60% of the size of a modern giant panda's and it has similar anatomical features, suggesting a similar lifestyle, say the researchers who made the discovery.
The extinct bear, named, Ailuropoda microta is the earliest known member of the panda lineage, says team member Professor Russell Ciochon, a University of Iowa palaeoanthropologist.
------------------------------------------
Life in the trees, not bamboo, shaped the panda’s “thumb”
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/phenomena/2010/04/13/life-in-the-trees-not-bamboo-shaped-the-pandas-thumb/
-----------------------------------------
How pandas use their heads as a kind of extra limb for climbing
January 28, 2020
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/how-pandas-use-their-heads-extra-limb-climbing
------------------------------------------
This Ancient Panda Skull Belongs to a Previously Unknown Lineage
2018
The fossilized skull represents a panda line that split from today’s fluffy creatures 183,000 years ago
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/ancient-panda-skull-belongs-previously-unknown-lineage-180969402/
------------------------------------------
Are the Pandas Successful Specialists or Evolutionary Failures?
1994
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1312297?seq=1
---------------------------------------------
{Since blacks and Mexicans have ghost DNA, that makes them a Cryptic Species or a Subspecies.
We should get rid of 90% of the blacks, Mexicans, Arabs, Indians and Orientals.
We should concentrate on promoting whites for the next future race of humans.
We
should phase out many of these brown Denisovan Subspecies such as
Indians, Blacks, Mexicans, and we must concentrate on promoting white
humans as the future human race.
White humanity could even evolve
to something even grander in the future. We need to eliminate many of
these Mexicans out of the picture so that future humanity can
flourish. Either that or we regulate whites as a 95% majority race, and
regulate only 5% of blacks, Hispanics and Asians, just as we see in many
movies.
There is a reason why some of the best movies
have white people, and why adding too many of these black looking Homo
heidelbergensis subspecies does ruin a good movie.
It
was a mistake letting many of these blacks and South American Indians
overpopulate and ruin the ecosystem. Then now some Chinese and East Indian subspecies have nuclear weapons. We should have eliminated many of these nuisance races during World War II.
It
is too bad that the higher IQ white Europeans had to die in World War 1
and World War II. The Allies would have been better off attacking Africa or Mexico instead of attacking other white nations.
It just seems right when humanity tries to flourish that something gets in the way and ruins it.
Such
as we had the Rise of Rome, which was a white Empire. Look at how savage Barbarians came over and attacked Romans. The Barbarians and the Romans should have invaded the Middle East
and killed Arabs instead, or go and kill black Africans.
You see this is what Rome did, is they conquered Egypt and invaded the Northern Parts of Africa.
We had Greece and Sparta fight each other, while fighting Persians. White Europe should have
united as a giant army to get rid of many of the blacks in Africa and the brown sand people in the Middle East.
Look
at how Italy, Germany and Spain joined forces in World War II in order
to get the degenerates out of Europe, and they were defeated.
Now look at how Europe has a bunch of browned up degenerate gypsies running around, and the Germans wanted them gone. Now we have more low IQ black degenerates in Europe.
We
see how close England got to trying to conquer South Africa, India and
many other parts of the world, but instead England had to waste resoures to fight and kill white Americans and white French instead. This
is the biggest mistake America, France and England ever made, and that was
to kill different white nations, and never finishing the objective of
eliminating these Black and brown savages like the white race did in Australia.
We should get rid of many of these black degenerates in South Africa and have strict population control on the numbers of blacks in the world, including limiting the numbers of blacks in Africa and in the rainforests}.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Is South Africa bottom of the class in maths and science? WEF ranking is meaningless
Published: 3 September 2014
https://africacheck.org/reports/is-sa-bottom-of-the-class-in-maths-and-science-why-ranking-is-meaningless/
A
report published by the World Economic Forum (WEF) has ranked the
quality of South Africa's maths and science education last out of 148
countries. But is the ranking an accurate reflection of the state of
schooling in the country?
Major problems do exist
Of
course this does not mean that all is well in South Africa. The
performance of South Africa’s education system has been subject to
severe criticism in recent years.
A 2012 study
published by the University of Stellenbosch found that while 71% of
children in grade six were functionally literate, only 58.6% could be
considered functionally numerate.
The study noted that
“at least a quarter of children are enrolled but have learnt so little
in six years of formal full-time schooling that they have not even
mastered functional literacy or numeracy”.
The basic
education department’s own academic assessments revealed last year that
just three percent of school pupils in grade nine had achieved more than
50% in mathematics.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Black Youngsta Mumble GIF
https://tenor.com/view/blac-youngsta-mumble-mumbling-trippy-tripping-gif-12080396
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{Look at how foolish the wars between England and France were, when they simply should have joined their forces and invaded Africa.
America did a good job of eliminating many of these Indians.
The
problem is that America, France and England all killed each other, when
they should have joined forces to eliminate the savage low IQ
Indians in the Americas. Now we have a bunch of low IQ South American
Indians and blacks that are burning down the rainforests, and blacks must
be
stopped from destroying the rainforests.
If
anything the British Empire were doing the right thing by elimating
many of these black savages, while keeping the numbers of these savages down.
It is too bad America and England didn't eliminate more of these Denisovan subspecies of Indians and 3rd world degenerates.
The reason why Germany allied with Japan is that Germany was the highest IQ white European country almost and Japan was the higher IQ Oriental country. If anything Japan could have eliminated many of the overpopulated Filipino people that have lower IQ. The problem is that Japan was getting too much of a threat and bombed Pearl Harbor, and America as a white nation was forced into war with an Oriental nation. I still think that Germany and America should have been allied in World War II and went after the African savages, Muslims and the Communists in China. Japan could have even helped invade China. Then we would have the higher IQ white populations eliminate the lower IQ Africans and Muslims instead of killing off good white DNA. You could keep a smaller portion of the higher IQ Orientals from Japan to help invade China, India, the Philippines and other areas of Asia.
We could have eliminated many of the Chinese, East Indians and Pakistani people, and not give these degenerates the luxury of copying nuclear weapons. Now we have some degenerative Denisovan subspecies with nuclear weapons.
It is still not too late, America and England now have even more technology to eliminate many of these savages once and for all.
We should continue both what England, France, Germany and America wanted, and that is a majority white country.
We
should have all whites and all white nations ally to round up all
blacks, Mexicans, Arabs and Sterilize 90% of these brown skinned people that are part Denisovan. Sterilize anyone that
has an IQ of under 100.
We hear all this guilt about aparthid in South Africa, when society was better off just eliminating many of these blacks that
are now overpopulated and invading Europe. We should work together to
eliminate 90% of the blacks, so the blacks stop burning down the rainforests, poaching animals and depleting resources.
Martin Luther King was an Antifa Communist degenerate, and the person who shot Martin Luther King was the real hero.
Do not honor Martin Luther King or Nelson Mandella. We should not have any streets or statues with these Homo heidelbergensis Ghost population subspecies trying to complain how they should overpopulate, deplete resources, then ruin first world nations and the rainforest.
Look at how public schools brainwash kids into thinking Martin Luther King or Nelson Mandella had good movements, when they actually were degenerates that degraded first world society, then further regressed the entire world into a 3rd world nation. This is why we have a bunch of low IQ black gangsters spawning up around the world that have become a nuisance and are now overpopulated.
We should have shipped all the blacks back to Africa and not let blacks degrade America and Europe, this is why we have laws in place to not allow low IQ 3rd world degenerates into a high IQ first world nation. It is still not too late to eliminate many of these savage third world blacks and replace them with a higher IQ population.
Blacks are a subspecies, you should have not let their numbers get to over a billion, this is why much of Africa and South America is now ruined, it is because of the blacks.
Then
we see how blacks and 3rd world people illegally immigrate to Europe
and America, then we see a pattern of illegals immigrating and stacking too many illegals that take water out of the river systems. This is why North Africa is turning into a desert, why Europe is also drying out, and why the South West in America along the Mexican border is also drying out.
It was many of these no good blacks, 3rd world degenerates, Communists, Antifa members and overpopulated people to blame for the destruction of the planet and allowing illegals to stack. How is the government or Polution Science 101 supposed to know about the exact amount of people there
are in an area. Instead you try to fight so hard to bring more
degenerates to dry up the groundwater resources, many of these
degenerates care more about stacking illegal Mexicans and illegal
blacks into first world nations to overthrow white areas such as Europe
and America.
These people could care less about all the resources
being used up, and even try to fight the press and call the press racist
for not wanting unlawful immigrants from ruining the environment.
Look at how bad Mexicans and Blacks trash up and ruin their own
countries, and this
is why we are now calling for the elimination of over 90% of the Blacks, Hispanics, Mexicans, Arabs, Indians and Orientals. Please eliminate them and do not let humanity get over 8 billion people.
Look at how much the black people throw away trash in the jungles and pollute in Africa, it is not worth keeping these degenerates around while they throw
all their trash out into the forests, burn down the rainforests,
illegally dump, including hunting down endangered animals and plants just
to
make a profit. It is not worth keeping this many blacks, Mexican, Arabs, Indians
and Orientals around, many of these races are overpopulated and have
become a nuisance to the rest of the planet. Most of these races were
just some Denisovan subspecies, and why the 3rd world degenerates have lower IQ than high IQ whites in Europe.
We
know that the Chinese cheat on their IQ test, and that many Orientals
are better at copying the car, and that white people actually invented
the car. The Chinese are better at counterfeiting white inventions,
while whites such as Tesla and Da Vinci were better at inventing inventions.
Orientals are a pretty smart race, and we see that all races have their smart races.
Here is the problem we have, we still cannot replicate some of the technology of the Ancient Egyptians.
Some say that the Ancient Egyptians and the people from Atlantis were more advanced than we are today.
It is debated if our newer technology today is more advanced, or that the people that created ancient Egypt could have been Freemasons or Aliens even.
If you have ever seen the movie Forbidden Planet, where there were actually ancient races of people more advanced than modern humans.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Pleiadians
https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Pleiadians
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Nordic aliens
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_aliens
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Top 10 Proof Of Pleiadian Aliens On Earth
https://proofofalien.com/top-10-proof-of-pleiadian-aliens-on-earth/
-----------------------------------------------------------------
{Jews think they are aliens and the Central Americans call themselves the Star people.
Many black Africans believed that a black race of primitive humans lived on the planet Earth, and that Aliens created white people, and that if you are white, that you have more of the Alien DNA in you, and if you are black it means that you are more of an original primitive being on Earth.
Some people try to mention if the Pleiadians are white, or they have a race of white aliens and brown skinned Aliens.
Many would like to believe that humans are not related to Neanderthals or any of these inferior species that we have mentioned. Many would like to think that they were created by a creator, and that we were actually designed as a special type of being that is different from any type of animal you see here on Earth.
We see how the human experience and technology is different from any other animal we see on Earth. Some even think that humans were on other planets, and that humans are just here as a colony to mine for resources}.
-------------------------------------------------------------
Series of Web Pages Convinced Asians are Aliens from Outer Space
November 8, 2010
https://www.8asians.com/2010/11/08/series-of-web-pages-convinced-asians-are-aliens-from-outer-space/
-------------------------------------------------------------
Space aliens are breeding with humans, university instructor says. Scientists say otherwise.
May 25, 2019
https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/space-aliens-are-breeding-humans-university-instructor-says-scientists-say-ncna1008971
-------------------------------------------------------------
{Do you think that the humans alive today are degenerates compared to ancient humans, or are humans the most evolved Hominin so far?
Some theories even try to claim that since the Pyramids go back very far in time, that maybe Neanderthals were the race
that created the Pyramids, and why we see some elongated heads in the
statues of Ancient Egypt. At first I really didn't want to entertain that theory, and that I would see the Neanderthals as a lesser intelligent race than a human. Some say that Neanderthals had a bigger head than humans. I believe that white humans made the Pyramids.
We do hear of a superspecies of giant Aryan humans that used to exist.
Even some religions in Asia believe that the whiter and more fair skinned Orientals are more pure human than the brown skin Orientals that have more subspecies DNA.
Sure
all races have been overpopulated, I can't name a race of people that
is underpopulated right now. Even Europe is way overpopulated right now.
Look at how it is the savage black Africans that continue to hunt and poach all the species out of the rainforests. Some blacks are no better than a Homo heidelbergensis, and that we let some subspecies ruin the rainforest.
If
the British Empire killed off many of these blacks in time, we could
have many species of extinct animals and plants that would still be alive in Africa. The same goes for South America with blacks and Indians making endangered plants and animals go extinct.
I
think it would have been better if England, France and America
eliminated many of these African and South American savages over 150
years ago. We should have had conservation efforts in place of
letting these 3rd world degenerates ruin the heart of the Amazon, and
threaten the very existence of the Earth.
If I were in charge I would regulate each race, just like a Silverback Gorilla.
For
instance, would we want to regulate the population of a Homo
heidelbergensis.
Now that people can genetically modify and
are doing experiments to create dinosaurs, what if they were able to
bring back extinct species of Hominins. I would say that we would
want to regulate the amount of genetically modified Hominins so that
they would not overpopulate. We see movies such as Planet of the Apes, and how it would be bad to try and release a black Homo heidelbergensis into the wild.
What if we did regulate the races of blacks, Mexicans, Arabs and Orientals just like an animal, I would say we should.
We hear people in the media complaining about how the United Nations wants to classify people as animals, at first I was
concerned, but now I am at the lead of trying to classify races such as
blacks as a ghost population subspecies and part animal}.
-------------------------------------------
African Animals That Are Close to Extinction
30 April 2018
https://theculturetrip.com/africa/articles/african-animals-that-are-close-to-extinction/
--------------------------------------------
The Ring of Solomon and Surah 38:36-38
Jan 20, 2019
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxheJas1hGM
--------------------------------------------
The time that Jesus called someone a dog
November 9, 2018
https://www.thebostonpilot.com/opinion/article.asp?ID=183681
-------------------------------
Jesus Calls a Canaanite Woman a Dog
https://www.tvcresources.net/resource-library/articles/jesus-calls-a-canaanite-woman-a-dog
-------------------------------
Dog-Headed Men From History are Real: Cynocephali Sightings
Mar 24, 2018
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2oSbMFNDCw
-------------------------------
Do the Dog-Headed Men Have Souls? // Letter from 9th Century Monk // Primary Source
Oct 9, 2019
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_-5RZBKBl_A
--------------------------------
Three Historical Accounts of the Dog-Headed Men // Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta and Sir John Mandeville
Mar 13, 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMAC8Pc0QDA
--------------------------------
The Dog-Headed Men of India
Mar 15, 2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7D0qvnO3gls
------------------------------------------------
Hypertrichosis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HypertrichosisHypertrichosis is an abnormal amount of hair growth over the body. The two distinct types of hypertrichosis are generalized hypertrichosis, which occurs over the entire body, and localized hypertrichosis, which is restricted to a certain area. Hypertrichosis can be either congenital (present at birth) or acquired later in life. The excess growth of hair occurs in areas of the skin with the exception of androgen-dependent hair of the pubic area, face, and axillary regions.
Several circus sideshow performers in the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Julia Pastrana, had hypertrichosis. Many of them worked as freaks and were promoted as having distinct human and animal traits.
 |
-------------------------------------------------
Children in Spain develop ‘werewolf syndrome’ after taking contaminated medicine
27 Aug 2019
The 16 infants developed the highly rare condition, which causes excessive hair growth anywhere on a person’s body, after taking omeprazole for acid reflux and indigestion.
https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/27/children-spain-develop-werewolf-syndrome-taking-contaminated-medicine-10639945/
--------------------------------------------------
{This article is a continuation of our following published articles in the following links}.
--------------------------
3/5/2019 - Race Dysgenics: Evolution, Dysgenic De-evolution, Eugenics
& Genetic Modification - The History of the Lineage of Man -
https://racedysgenics.blogspot.com
--------------------------
04/19/2018 The Dysgenics Investigation - Race, Science & the Human
Genome Project - The Eugenics Investigation (Akoniti) -
DysgenicsInvestigation.blogspot.com
--------------------------
Race Virus 101 - The Eugenics Investigation ( The Dysgenics Investigation)
https://racevirus101.blogspot.com/
--------------------------
8/15/2017 - Genetically Modified Vaccines Investigated - The Eugenics Investigation (MonsantoInvestigation.com) - GMOvaccinesinvestigated.blogspot.com
-------------------------
Race Dysgenics Brazil | Eugenics in Brazil
https://eugenicsbrazil.blogspot.com
--------------------------
https://eugenics101.blogspot.com
--------------------------
July 7th, 2017 - Genetically Modified Humans & Viruses - The Eugenics Investigation - GMOhumansandviruses.blogspot.com
--------------------------
4/4/2019 - The Rockefeller Dynasty Investigation 2020 - The Eugenics
Investigation - https://rockefellerdynastyinvestigation.blogspot.com/
--------------------------
Pollution Science 101 - China
https://pollutionscience101china.blogspot.com
--------------------------
Pollution Science 101 - Brazil - Emergency Report
https://pollutionscience101brazil.blogspot.com
---------------------
Pollution Science 101 - Mexico
https://pollutionscience101mexico.blogspot.com
-----------------
Pollution Science 101- Russia
https://pollutionscience101russia.blogspot.com
-----------------
Pollution Science 101 - India
https://pollutionscience101india.blogspot.com
-----------------
Pollution Science 101 - Cancer Investigated (California)
https://pollutionscience101cancerinvestigated.blogspot.com
-----------------
Pollution Science 101 - Israel
https://pollutionscience101israel.blogspot.com
-----------------
King Solomon's Temple Investigation Marathon
https://solomonstempleinvestigation.blogspot.com/
----------------
Pollution Science 101 - Texas
https://pollutionscience101texasvsbpoil.blogspot.com
------------------
Pollution Science 101 - Solutions
https://pollutionscience101solutions.blogspot.com
-----------------
The DuPont Investigation
https://dupontinvestigation.blogspot.com
------------------------------------
Pollution Science 101 - Brazil - Emergency Report
https://pollutionscience101brazil.blogspot.com
-------------------------------------
TheInvestigations@email.com
